Globalize textures, materials and gui

Somehow, some way, we ended up with net positive lines changed

src/AppContext.zig

@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+//! This module contains some common global variables, which mostly refer to
+//! singleton modules that are active throughout entire program's runtime.
+//!
+//! These globals can be safely referenced during and after game initialization.
+
+const AppContext = @This();
+const std = @import("std");
+
+const media = @import("media");
+const glfw = @import("zglfw");
+
+const Atoms = @import("engine/Atoms.zig");
+const Engine = @import("engine/Engine.zig");
+const Gui = @import("engine/Gui.zig");
+const Materials = @import("engine/Materials.zig");
+const Swapchain = @import("engine/Swapchain.zig");
+const Textures = @import("engine/Textures.zig");
+const VkAllocator = @import("engine/VkAllocator.zig");
+
+pub var allocator_general: std.mem.Allocator = undefined;
+pub var allocator_frame: std.mem.Allocator = undefined;
+pub var allocator_persistent: std.mem.Allocator = undefined;
+pub var io: std.Io = undefined;
+pub var vk_allocator: *VkAllocator = undefined;
+pub var stbi: *media.stbi = undefined;
+
+pub var window: *glfw.Window = undefined;
+pub var atoms: *Atoms = undefined;
+pub var engine: *Engine = undefined;
+pub var swapchain: *Swapchain = undefined;
+
+pub var textures: *Textures = undefined;
+pub var materials: *Materials = undefined;
+pub var gui: *Gui = undefined;

src/Chunk.zig

@@ -1,18 +1,19 @@
 const Chunk = @This();
 const std = @import("std");
 
-const math = @import("../math.zig");
-const shaders = @import("../shaders.zig");
+const ctx = @import("AppContext.zig");
+const math = @import("math.zig");
+const shaders = @import("shaders.zig");
 const vk = @import("vulkan");
 const vm = @import("vecmath");
-const voxels = @import("../voxels.zig");
+const voxels = @import("voxels.zig");
 
-const Blocks = @import("Blocks.zig");
-const CommandBuffer = @import("../engine/CommandBuffer.zig");
-const Engine = @import("../engine/Engine.zig");
-const Game = @import("../Game.zig");
-const GenericBuffer = @import("../engine/GenericBuffer.zig").GenericBuffer;
-const Materials = @import("Materials.zig");
+const Blocks = @import("assets/Blocks.zig");
+const CommandBuffer = @import("engine/CommandBuffer.zig");
+const Engine = @import("engine/Engine.zig");
+const Game = @import("Game.zig");
+const GenericBuffer = @import("engine/GenericBuffer.zig").GenericBuffer;
+const Materials = @import("engine/Materials.zig");
 
 const ObjectUniformsBuffer = GenericBuffer(void, shaders.ObjectUniforms);
 
@@ -40,19 +41,21 @@ pub const InitInfo = struct {
 
 pub const Neighbors = std.enums.EnumFieldStruct(voxels.Orientation, ?*const Chunk, null);
 
-pub fn init(engine: *Engine, init_info: InitInfo) !Chunk {
+pub fn init(init_info: InitInfo) !Chunk {
+    const engine = ctx.engine;
+
     const descriptor_set = try engine.allocateDescriptorSet(.{
         .descriptor_pool = init_info.descriptor_pool,
         .set_layout = init_info.per_batch_descriptor_set_layout,
     });
     errdefer engine.freeDescriptorSet(init_info.descriptor_pool, descriptor_set);
 
-    var object_buffer: ObjectUniformsBuffer = try .init(engine, .{
+    var object_buffer: ObjectUniformsBuffer = try .init(.{
         .usage = .storage,
         .target_queue = .graphics,
         .array_capacity = initial_capacity,
     });
-    errdefer object_buffer.deinit(engine);
+    errdefer object_buffer.deinit();
 
     try engine.updateDescriptorSets(.{
         .writes = &.{
@@ -89,18 +92,22 @@ pub fn init(engine: *Engine, init_info: InitInfo) !Chunk {
     };
 }
 
-pub fn deinit(self: *Chunk, engine: *Engine, descriptor_pool: vk.DescriptorPool) void {
-    std.log.scoped(.deinit).debug("Deinitializing chunk {d} with {*} and {s}#{X}", .{ self.chunk_id, engine, @typeName(vk.DescriptorPool), @intFromEnum(descriptor_pool) });
+pub fn deinit(self: *Chunk, descriptor_pool: vk.DescriptorPool) void {
+    const engine = ctx.engine;
 
-    self.object_buffer.deinit(engine);
+    std.log.scoped(.deinit).debug("Deinitializing chunk {d} with {s}#{X}", .{ self.chunk_id, @typeName(vk.DescriptorPool), @intFromEnum(descriptor_pool) });
+
+    self.object_buffer.deinit();
     engine.freeDescriptorSet(descriptor_pool, self.descriptor_set);
 
     self.* = undefined;
 }
 
-pub fn refresh(self: *Chunk, engine: *Engine, blocks: *const Blocks, neighbors: Neighbors, temp_allocator: std.mem.Allocator) !void {
-    var uniforms: std.ArrayList(shaders.ObjectUniforms) = try .initCapacity(temp_allocator, initial_capacity);
-    defer uniforms.deinit(temp_allocator);
+pub fn refresh(self: *Chunk, blocks: *const Blocks, neighbors: Neighbors) !void {
+    const allocator_frame = ctx.allocator_frame;
+    const engine = ctx.engine;
+
+    var uniforms: std.ArrayList(shaders.ObjectUniforms) = try .initCapacity(allocator_frame, initial_capacity);
 
     for (self.blocks, 0..) |plane, iz| {
         const fz: f32 = @floatFromInt(iz);
@@ -116,7 +123,7 @@ pub fn refresh(self: *Chunk, engine: *Engine, blocks: *const Blocks, neighbors:
                     const material = @field(block.walls, field.name).material;
                     if (material != .empty and self.getOpposite(side, ix, iy, iz, blocks, neighbors) == .empty) {
                         const matrix = getMatrix(side, origin);
-                        try uniforms.append(temp_allocator, .{
+                        try uniforms.append(allocator_frame, .{
                             .matrixOStoWS = matrix,
                             .matrixOStoWSNormal = matrix,
                             .material = material,
@@ -130,7 +137,7 @@ pub fn refresh(self: *Chunk, engine: *Engine, blocks: *const Blocks, neighbors:
     const object_count: u32 = @intCast(uniforms.items.len);
     if (self.object_buffer.array_capacity < object_count) {
         const desired_capacity = std.math.ceilPowerOfTwoAssert(u32, object_count);
-        const new_object_buffer: ObjectUniformsBuffer = try .init(engine, .{
+        const new_object_buffer: ObjectUniformsBuffer = try .init(.{
             .usage = .storage,
             .target_queue = .graphics,
             .array_capacity = desired_capacity,
@@ -156,13 +163,13 @@ pub fn refresh(self: *Chunk, engine: *Engine, blocks: *const Blocks, neighbors:
             },
         });
 
-        self.object_buffer.deinit(engine);
+        self.object_buffer.deinit();
         self.object_buffer = new_object_buffer;
         engine.setObjectName(new_object_buffer.buffer, "B Chunk[{d}]", .{self.chunk_id});
         engine.setObjectName(new_object_buffer.device_memory, "DM Chunk[{d}]", .{self.chunk_id});
     }
 
-    try self.object_buffer.write(engine, .{ .elements = uniforms.items });
+    try self.object_buffer.write(.{ .elements = uniforms.items });
     self.object_count = object_count;
 }
 

src/Chunks.zig

@@ -2,13 +2,14 @@ const Chunks = @This();
 const std = @import("std");
 
 const c = @import("const.zig");
+const ctx = @import("AppContext.zig");
 const math = @import("math.zig");
 const vk = @import("vulkan");
 const vm = @import("vecmath");
 const voxels = @import("voxels.zig");
 
 const Blocks = @import("assets/Blocks.zig");
-const Chunk = @import("assets/Chunk.zig");
+const Chunk = @import("Chunk.zig");
 const Engine = @import("engine/Engine.zig");
 const Iterator2 = math.Iterator2;
 
@@ -24,12 +25,14 @@ pub const RaycastHit = struct {
     side: voxels.Orientation,
 };
 
-pub fn deinit(self: *Chunks, engine: *Engine, descriptor_pool: vk.DescriptorPool, allocator: std.mem.Allocator) void {
+pub fn deinit(self: *Chunks, descriptor_pool: vk.DescriptorPool) void {
+    const allocator_general = ctx.allocator_general;
+
     var it = self.chunks.valueIterator();
     while (it.next()) |chunk| {
-        chunk.deinit(engine, descriptor_pool);
+        chunk.deinit(descriptor_pool);
     }
-    self.chunks.deinit(allocator);
+    self.chunks.deinit(allocator_general);
     self.* = undefined;
 }
 
@@ -58,11 +61,9 @@ pub fn setVoxelAt(
     self: *Chunks,
     vx: vm.Vector3Int,
     id: Blocks.Id,
-    engine: *Engine,
     blocks: *const Blocks,
     descriptor_pool: vk.DescriptorPool,
     per_batch_descriptor_set_layout: vk.DescriptorSetLayout,
-    allocator: std.mem.Allocator,
 ) !void {
     const min_ck = vm.Vector3Int.initScalar(std.math.minInt(i16));
     const max_ck = vm.Vector3Int.initScalar(std.math.maxInt(i16));
@@ -76,91 +77,91 @@ pub fn setVoxelAt(
     const y: i16 = @intCast(ck.y);
     const z: i16 = @intCast(ck.z);
 
-    const chunk = try self.getOrCreateChunk(ck, engine, descriptor_pool, per_batch_descriptor_set_layout, allocator);
+    const chunk = try self.getOrCreateChunk(ck, descriptor_pool, per_batch_descriptor_set_layout);
 
     const ckvx = vx.modScalar(c.vx_per_ck);
     const block = &chunk.blocks[@intCast(ckvx.z)][@intCast(ckvx.y)][@intCast(ckvx.x)];
     if (block.* != id) {
         block.* = id;
 
-        try chunk.refresh(engine, blocks, .{
+        try chunk.refresh(blocks, .{
             .positive_x = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x + 1, y, z }),
             .negative_x = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x - 1, y, z }),
             .positive_y = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x, y + 1, z }),
             .negative_y = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x, y - 1, z }),
             .positive_z = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x, y, z + 1 }),
             .negative_z = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x, y, z - 1 }),
-        }, allocator);
+        });
 
         if (ckvx.x == 0) {
             if (self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x - 1, y, z })) |neighbor| {
-                try neighbor.refresh(engine, blocks, .{
+                try neighbor.refresh(blocks, .{
                     .positive_x = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x, y, z }),
                     .negative_x = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x - 2, y, z }),
                     .positive_y = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x - 1, y + 1, z }),
                     .negative_y = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x - 1, y - 1, z }),
                     .positive_z = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x - 1, y, z + 1 }),
                     .negative_z = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x - 1, y, z - 1 }),
-                }, allocator);
+                });
             }
         } else if (ckvx.x == c.vx_per_ck - 1) {
             if (self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x + 1, y, z })) |neighbor| {
-                try neighbor.refresh(engine, blocks, .{
+                try neighbor.refresh(blocks, .{
                     .positive_x = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x + 2, y, z }),
                     .negative_x = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x, y, z }),
                     .positive_y = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x + 1, y + 1, z }),
                     .negative_y = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x + 1, y - 1, z }),
                     .positive_z = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x + 1, y, z + 1 }),
                     .negative_z = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x + 1, y, z - 1 }),
-                }, allocator);
+                });
             }
         }
 
         if (ckvx.y == 0) {
             if (self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x, y - 1, z })) |neighbor| {
-                try neighbor.refresh(engine, blocks, .{
+                try neighbor.refresh(blocks, .{
                     .positive_x = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x + 1, y - 1, z }),
                     .negative_x = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x - 1, y - 1, z }),
                     .positive_y = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x, y, z }),
                     .negative_y = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x, y - 2, z }),
                     .positive_z = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x, y - 1, z + 1 }),
                     .negative_z = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x, y - 1, z - 1 }),
-                }, allocator);
+                });
             }
         } else if (ckvx.y == c.vx_per_ck - 1) {
             if (self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x, y + 1, z })) |neighbor| {
-                try neighbor.refresh(engine, blocks, .{
+                try neighbor.refresh(blocks, .{
                     .positive_x = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x + 1, y + 1, z }),
                     .negative_x = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x - 1, y + 1, z }),
                     .positive_y = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x, y + 2, z }),
                     .negative_y = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x, y, z }),
                     .positive_z = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x, y + 1, z + 1 }),
                     .negative_z = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x, y + 1, z - 1 }),
-                }, allocator);
+                });
             }
         }
 
         if (ckvx.z == 0) {
             if (self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x, y, z - 1 })) |neighbor| {
-                try neighbor.refresh(engine, blocks, .{
+                try neighbor.refresh(blocks, .{
                     .positive_x = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x + 1, y, z - 1 }),
                     .negative_x = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x - 1, y, z - 1 }),
                     .positive_y = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x, y + 1, z - 1 }),
                     .negative_y = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x, y - 1, z - 1 }),
                     .positive_z = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x, y, z }),
                     .negative_z = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x, y, z - 2 }),
-                }, allocator);
+                });
             }
         } else if (ckvx.z == c.vx_per_ck - 1) {
             if (self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x, y, z + 1 })) |neighbor| {
-                try neighbor.refresh(engine, blocks, .{
+                try neighbor.refresh(blocks, .{
                     .positive_x = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x + 1, y, z + 1 }),
                     .negative_x = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x - 1, y, z + 1 }),
                     .positive_y = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x, y + 1, z + 1 }),
                     .negative_y = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x, y - 1, z + 1 }),
                     .positive_z = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x, y, z + 2 }),
                     .negative_z = self.chunks.getPtr(.{ x, y, z }),
-                }, allocator);
+                });
             }
         }
     }
@@ -667,11 +668,11 @@ pub fn raycast(self: *const Chunks, origin_sv: vm.Vector3Int, ray_sv: vm.Vector3
 fn getOrCreateChunk(
     self: *Chunks,
     ck: vm.Vector3Int,
-    engine: *Engine,
     descriptor_pool: vk.DescriptorPool,
     per_batch_descriptor_set_layout: vk.DescriptorSetLayout,
-    allocator: std.mem.Allocator,
 ) !*Chunk {
+    const allocator_general = ctx.allocator_general;
+
     const min_ck = vm.Vector3Int.initScalar(std.math.minInt(i16));
     const max_ck = vm.Vector3Int.initScalar(std.math.maxInt(i16));
     std.debug.assert((ck.x >= min_ck.x) | (ck.y >= min_ck.y) | (ck.z >= min_ck.z) | (ck.x <= max_ck.x) | (ck.y <= max_ck.y) | (ck.z <= max_ck.z));
@@ -682,7 +683,7 @@ fn getOrCreateChunk(
         @intCast(ck.z),
     };
 
-    const entry = try self.chunks.getOrPut(allocator, key);
+    const entry = try self.chunks.getOrPut(allocator_general, key);
 
     if (entry.found_existing) {
         return entry.value_ptr;
@@ -690,7 +691,7 @@ fn getOrCreateChunk(
         errdefer _ = self.chunks.remove(key);
 
         const origin = ck.asFloat().mulScalar(c.vx_per_ck);
-        const chunk = try Chunk.init(engine, .{
+        const chunk = try Chunk.init(.{
             .origin = origin,
             .descriptor_pool = descriptor_pool,
             .per_batch_descriptor_set_layout = per_batch_descriptor_set_layout,

src/Game.zig

@@ -2,6 +2,7 @@ const Game = @This();
 const std = @import("std");
 
 const c = @import("const.zig");
+const ctx = @import("AppContext.zig");
 const glfw = @import("zglfw");
 const math = @import("math.zig");
 const media = @import("media");
@@ -11,23 +12,19 @@ const vm = @import("vecmath");
 const worldgen = @import("worldgen.zig");
 
 const Blocks = @import("assets/Blocks.zig");
-const Chunk = @import("assets/Chunk.zig");
+const Chunk = @import("Chunk.zig");
 const Chunks = @import("Chunks.zig");
 const CommandBuffer = @import("engine/CommandBuffer.zig");
 const Engine = @import("engine/Engine.zig");
-const Gui = @import("Gui.zig");
 const Iterator2 = math.Iterator2;
-const Materials = @import("assets/Materials.zig");
+const Materials = @import("engine/Materials.zig");
 const Player = @import("Player.zig");
 const Skybox = @import("engine/Skybox.zig");
 const StagingBuffer = @import("engine/StagingBuffer.zig");
 const Swapchain = @import("engine/Swapchain.zig");
-const Textures = @import("assets/Textures.zig");
+const Texture = @import("engine/Texture.zig");
+const Textures = @import("engine/Textures.zig");
 
-allocator: std.mem.Allocator,
-io: std.Io,
-engine: *Engine,
-swapchain: *Swapchain,
 global_descriptor_set_layout: vk.DescriptorSetLayout,
 per_batch_descriptor_set_layout: vk.DescriptorSetLayout,
 descriptor_pool: vk.DescriptorPool,
@@ -46,14 +43,9 @@ directional_lights: shaders.DirectionalLightBuffer,
 sampler: vk.Sampler,
 deferred_command_buffers: std.ArrayList(CommandBuffer),
 
-stbi: media.stbi,
 blocks: Blocks,
-materials: Materials,
-textures: Textures,
 chunks: Chunks,
 skybox: Skybox,
-gui: Gui,
-
 player: Player,
 
 const max_textures = 1024;
@@ -63,24 +55,22 @@ const chunk_descriptor_pool = 1024;
 
 const camera_near_plane = 0.1;
 
-pub fn init(allocator: std.mem.Allocator, io: std.Io, engine: *Engine, swapchain: *Swapchain) !Game {
-    var stbi = media.stbi.init(allocator, io);
-    errdefer stbi.deinit();
+pub fn init() !Game {
+    const allocator_general = ctx.allocator_general;
+    const allocator_frame = ctx.allocator_frame;
+    const engine = ctx.engine;
+    const swapchain = ctx.swapchain;
+    const textures = ctx.textures;
+    const materials = ctx.materials;
+    const gui = ctx.gui;
 
-    var materials = try Materials.init(engine, allocator);
-    errdefer materials.deinit(engine, allocator);
-
-    var textures = try Textures.init(engine, allocator);
-    errdefer textures.deinit(engine, allocator);
-
-    var blocks = try Blocks.init(allocator);
-    errdefer blocks.deinit(allocator);
+    var blocks = try Blocks.init();
+    errdefer blocks.deinit();
 
     // JANK HACK When this line is removed, capturing a frame with RenderDoc
     // will crash the game with segfault reading address 0x140 (presumably
     // within librenderdoc.so).
-
-    blocks.loadAll(engine, &materials, &textures, &stbi, allocator, io);
+    blocks.loadAll();
 
     const sampler = try engine.createSampler(.{
         .mag_filter = .linear,
@@ -176,14 +166,14 @@ pub fn init(allocator: std.mem.Allocator, io: std.Io, engine: *Engine, swapchain
     defer engine.destroyShaderModule(fragment_shader);
     engine.setObjectName(fragment_shader, "SM main_frag", .{});
 
-    var vertex_buffer = try shaders.VertexBuffer.init(engine, .{
+    var vertex_buffer = try shaders.VertexBuffer.init(.{
         .usage = .vertex,
         .target_queue = .graphics,
         .array_capacity = 4,
         .name = "QuadVB",
     });
-    errdefer vertex_buffer.deinit(engine);
-    try vertex_buffer.write(engine, .{
+    errdefer vertex_buffer.deinit();
+    try vertex_buffer.write(.{
         .elements = &.{
             .init(
                 .init(0, 0, 0),
@@ -212,33 +202,33 @@ pub fn init(allocator: std.mem.Allocator, io: std.Io, engine: *Engine, swapchain
         },
     });
 
-    var index_buffer = try shaders.IndexBuffer.init(engine, .{
+    var index_buffer = try shaders.IndexBuffer.init(.{
         .usage = .index,
         .target_queue = .graphics,
         .array_capacity = 6,
         .name = "QuadIB",
     });
-    errdefer index_buffer.deinit(engine);
-    try index_buffer.write(engine, .{
+    errdefer index_buffer.deinit();
+    try index_buffer.write(.{
         .elements = &.{ 0, 1, 2, 2, 1, 3 },
     });
 
-    var global_uniforms = try shaders.GlobalUniformsBuffer.init(engine, .{
+    var global_uniforms = try shaders.GlobalUniformsBuffer.init(.{
         .usage = .uniform,
         .target_queue = .graphics,
         .name = "GlobalUniforms",
     });
-    errdefer global_uniforms.deinit(engine);
+    errdefer global_uniforms.deinit();
 
-    var global_uniforms_staging_buffer = try StagingBuffer.init(engine, .{
+    var global_uniforms_staging_buffer = try StagingBuffer.init(.{
         .capacity = @sizeOf(shaders.GlobalUniforms),
         .target_queue = .graphics,
     });
-    errdefer global_uniforms_staging_buffer.deinit(engine);
+    errdefer global_uniforms_staging_buffer.deinit();
 
     const global_uniforms_transfer_semaphores = blk: {
-        var semaphores: std.ArrayList(vk.Semaphore) = try .initCapacity(allocator, swapchain.swapchain_images.len);
-        errdefer semaphores.deinit(allocator);
+        var semaphores: std.ArrayList(vk.Semaphore) = try .initCapacity(allocator_general, swapchain.swapchain_images.len);
+        errdefer semaphores.deinit(allocator_general);
 
         errdefer for (semaphores.items) |x| engine.destroySemaphore(x);
 
@@ -248,30 +238,30 @@ pub fn init(allocator: std.mem.Allocator, io: std.Io, engine: *Engine, swapchain
             semaphores.appendAssumeCapacity(semaphore);
         }
 
-        break :blk try semaphores.toOwnedSlice(allocator);
+        break :blk try semaphores.toOwnedSlice(allocator_general);
     };
     errdefer {
         for (global_uniforms_transfer_semaphores) |semaphore| {
             engine.destroySemaphore(semaphore);
         }
-        allocator.free(global_uniforms_transfer_semaphores);
+        allocator_general.free(global_uniforms_transfer_semaphores);
     }
 
-    var point_lights = try shaders.PointLightBuffer.init(engine, .{
+    var point_lights = try shaders.PointLightBuffer.init(.{
         .usage = .storage,
         .target_queue = .graphics,
         .array_capacity = max_point_lights,
         .name = "PointLights",
     });
-    errdefer point_lights.deinit(engine);
+    errdefer point_lights.deinit();
 
-    var directional_lights = try shaders.DirectionalLightBuffer.init(engine, .{
+    var directional_lights = try shaders.DirectionalLightBuffer.init(.{
         .usage = .storage,
         .target_queue = .graphics,
         .array_capacity = max_directional_lights,
         .name = "DirectionalLights",
     });
-    errdefer directional_lights.deinit(engine);
+    errdefer directional_lights.deinit();
 
     const pipeline = try engine.createGraphicsPipeline(.{
         .stages = &.{
@@ -401,8 +391,10 @@ pub fn init(allocator: std.mem.Allocator, io: std.Io, engine: *Engine, swapchain
             .dynamic_states = &.{ .viewport, .scissor },
         },
         .layout = pipeline_layout,
-        .render_pass = swapchain.render_pass,
-        .subpass = 0,
+        .view_mask = 0,
+        .color_attachment_formats = &.{swapchain.params.surface_format.format},
+        .depth_attachment_format = Texture.Usage.depth.vkFormat(),
+        .stencil_attachment_format = .undefined,
     });
     errdefer engine.destroyPipeline(pipeline);
     engine.setObjectName(pipeline, "P Main", .{});
@@ -441,14 +433,14 @@ pub fn init(allocator: std.mem.Allocator, io: std.Io, engine: *Engine, swapchain
     });
     engine.setObjectName(global_descriptor_set, "DS Global", .{});
 
-    const block_grass = try blocks.getOrLoad(engine, &materials, &textures, &stbi, "Grass.json", allocator, io);
-    const block_dirt = try blocks.getOrLoad(engine, &materials, &textures, &stbi, "Dirt.json", allocator, io);
-    const block_stone = try blocks.getOrLoad(engine, &materials, &textures, &stbi, "Stone.json", allocator, io);
-    const block_bedrock = try blocks.getOrLoad(engine, &materials, &textures, &stbi, "Bedrock.json", allocator, io);
+    const block_grass = try blocks.getOrLoad("Grass.json");
+    const block_dirt = try blocks.getOrLoad("Dirt.json");
+    const block_stone = try blocks.getOrLoad("Stone.json");
+    const block_bedrock = try blocks.getOrLoad("Bedrock.json");
 
     // VOLATILE Load all assets before this point
 
-    const descriptor_images = try allocator.alloc(vk.DescriptorImageInfo, textures.array.items.len);
+    const descriptor_images = try allocator_frame.alloc(vk.DescriptorImageInfo, textures.array.items.len);
     for (textures.array.items, descriptor_images) |texture, *info| {
         info.* = .{
             .sampler = .null_handle,
@@ -456,7 +448,6 @@ pub fn init(allocator: std.mem.Allocator, io: std.Io, engine: *Engine, swapchain
             .image_layout = .shader_read_only_optimal,
         };
     }
-    defer allocator.free(descriptor_images);
 
     try engine.updateDescriptorSets(.{
         .writes = &.{
@@ -534,9 +525,9 @@ pub fn init(allocator: std.mem.Allocator, io: std.Io, engine: *Engine, swapchain
     errdefer {
         var it = chunks.valueIterator();
         while (it.next()) |chunk| {
-            chunk.deinit(engine, descriptor_pool);
+            chunk.deinit(descriptor_pool);
         }
-        chunks.deinit(allocator);
+        chunks.deinit(allocator_general);
     }
 
     const world_seed = engine.random.int(u64);
@@ -554,10 +545,10 @@ pub fn init(allocator: std.mem.Allocator, io: std.Io, engine: *Engine, swapchain
             @floatFromInt(chunk_coords3[2]),
         ).mulScalar(16);
 
-        try chunks.ensureUnusedCapacity(allocator, 1);
+        try chunks.ensureUnusedCapacity(allocator_general, 1);
         chunks.putAssumeCapacityNoClobber(
             chunk_coords3,
-            try Chunk.init(engine, .{
+            try Chunk.init(.{
                 .origin = origin,
                 .descriptor_pool = descriptor_pool,
                 .per_batch_descriptor_set_layout = per_batch_descriptor_set_layout,
@@ -608,18 +599,18 @@ pub fn init(allocator: std.mem.Allocator, io: std.Io, engine: *Engine, swapchain
     while (chunk_it.next()) |entry| {
         const x, const y, const z = entry.key_ptr.*;
         const chunk = entry.value_ptr;
-        try chunk.refresh(engine, &blocks, .{
+        try chunk.refresh(&blocks, .{
             .positive_x = chunks.getPtr(.{ x + 1, y, z }),
             .negative_x = chunks.getPtr(.{ x - 1, y, z }),
             .positive_y = chunks.getPtr(.{ x, y + 1, z }),
             .negative_y = chunks.getPtr(.{ x, y - 1, z }),
             .positive_z = chunks.getPtr(.{ x, y, z + 1 }),
             .negative_z = chunks.getPtr(.{ x, y, z - 1 }),
-        }, allocator);
+        });
     }
 
     const point_lights_data: []const shaders.PointLight = &.{};
-    try point_lights.write(engine, .{
+    try point_lights.write(.{
         .header = @intCast(point_lights_data.len),
         .elements = point_lights_data,
     });
@@ -630,36 +621,40 @@ pub fn init(allocator: std.mem.Allocator, io: std.Io, engine: *Engine, swapchain
             .color = .init(0.3, 0.3, 0.3),
         },
     };
-    try directional_lights.write(engine, .{
+    try directional_lights.write(.{
         .header = @intCast(directional_lights_data.len),
         .elements = directional_lights_data,
     });
 
-    var skybox = try Skybox.load(
-        "skybox.hdr",
-        engine,
-        &stbi,
-        512,
-        global_uniforms.buffer,
-        swapchain.render_pass,
-        allocator,
-        io,
-    );
-    errdefer skybox.deinit(engine);
+    var skybox = try Skybox.load("skybox.hdr", 512, global_uniforms.buffer);
+    errdefer skybox.deinit();
 
-    var gui = try Gui.init(
-        allocator,
-        engine,
-        global_uniforms.buffer,
-        swapchain.render_pass,
-    );
-    errdefer gui.deinit(engine, allocator);
+    // TODO This coupling is not elegant - the game must provide the GUI with
+    // uniform buffer for globals. Maybe GUI should just use their own global
+    // uniform buffer not for any other reason than decoupling. After all, GUI
+    // only needs a single 3×2 matrix and does not need to depend on game's
+    // rendering pipeline.
+    try engine.updateDescriptorSets(.{
+        .writes = &.{
+            .{
+                .dst_set = gui.box_descriptor_set,
+                .dst_binding = 0,
+                .dst_array_element = 0,
+                .descriptor_type = .uniform_buffer,
+                .descriptor_infos = .{
+                    .buffer = &.{
+                        .{
+                            .buffer = global_uniforms.buffer,
+                            .offset = 0,
+                            .range = vk.WHOLE_SIZE,
+                        },
+                    },
+                },
+            },
+        },
+    });
 
     return .{
-        .allocator = allocator,
-        .io = io,
-        .engine = engine,
-        .swapchain = swapchain,
         .global_descriptor_set_layout = global_descriptor_set_layout,
         .per_batch_descriptor_set_layout = per_batch_descriptor_set_layout,
         .descriptor_pool = descriptor_pool,
@@ -676,64 +671,60 @@ pub fn init(allocator: std.mem.Allocator, io: std.Io, engine: *Engine, swapchain
         .point_lights = point_lights,
         .directional_lights = directional_lights,
         .sampler = sampler,
-        .deferred_command_buffers = try .initCapacity(allocator, 4),
+        .deferred_command_buffers = try .initCapacity(allocator_general, 4),
 
-        .stbi = stbi,
         .blocks = blocks,
-        .materials = materials,
-        .textures = textures,
         .chunks = .{ .chunks = chunks },
         .skybox = skybox,
-        .gui = gui,
-
         .player = .init(player_position_sv, 0, 0),
     };
 }
 
 pub fn deinit(self: *Game) void {
+    const allocator_general = ctx.allocator_general;
+    const engine = ctx.engine;
+
     std.log.scoped(.deinit).debug("Deinitializing {*}", .{self});
 
     for (self.deferred_command_buffers.items) |*command_buffer| {
-        command_buffer.deinit(self.engine);
+        command_buffer.deinit();
     }
-    self.deferred_command_buffers.deinit(self.allocator);
+    self.deferred_command_buffers.deinit(allocator_general);
 
-    self.vertex_buffer.deinit(self.engine);
-    self.index_buffer.deinit(self.engine);
+    self.vertex_buffer.deinit();
+    self.index_buffer.deinit();
 
-    self.chunks.deinit(self.engine, self.descriptor_pool, self.allocator);
-    self.skybox.deinit(self.engine);
-    self.gui.deinit(self.engine, self.allocator);
+    self.chunks.deinit(self.descriptor_pool);
+    self.skybox.deinit();
 
-    self.global_uniforms.deinit(self.engine);
-    self.global_uniforms_staging_buffer.deinit(self.engine);
-    self.point_lights.deinit(self.engine);
-    self.directional_lights.deinit(self.engine);
+    self.global_uniforms.deinit();
+    self.global_uniforms_staging_buffer.deinit();
+    self.point_lights.deinit();
+    self.directional_lights.deinit();
 
     for (self.global_uniforms_transfer_semaphores) |semaphore| {
-        self.engine.destroySemaphore(semaphore);
+        engine.destroySemaphore(semaphore);
     }
-    self.allocator.free(self.global_uniforms_transfer_semaphores);
+    allocator_general.free(self.global_uniforms_transfer_semaphores);
 
-    self.engine.destroyDescriptorPool(self.descriptor_pool);
-    self.engine.destroySampler(self.sampler);
-    self.engine.destroyPipeline(self.pipeline);
-    self.engine.destroyPipelineLayout(self.pipeline_layout);
-    self.engine.destroyDescriptorSetLayout(self.per_batch_descriptor_set_layout);
-    self.engine.destroyDescriptorSetLayout(self.global_descriptor_set_layout);
+    engine.destroyDescriptorPool(self.descriptor_pool);
+    engine.destroySampler(self.sampler);
+    engine.destroyPipeline(self.pipeline);
+    engine.destroyPipelineLayout(self.pipeline_layout);
+    engine.destroyDescriptorSetLayout(self.per_batch_descriptor_set_layout);
+    engine.destroyDescriptorSetLayout(self.global_descriptor_set_layout);
 
-    self.textures.deinit(self.engine, self.allocator);
-    self.materials.deinit(self.engine, self.allocator);
-    self.blocks.deinit(self.allocator);
-    self.stbi.deinit();
+    self.blocks.deinit();
     self.* = undefined;
 }
 
 pub fn update(self: *Game, dt: f32) void {
-    self.gui.beginFrame();
+    const swapchain = ctx.swapchain;
+    const gui = ctx.gui;
+
     self.player.update(dt, &self.chunks);
 
-    const extent = self.swapchain.extent;
+    const extent = swapchain.extent;
     const framebuffer_size = vm.Vector2.init(
         @floatFromInt(extent.width),
         @floatFromInt(extent.height),
@@ -742,7 +733,7 @@ pub fn update(self: *Game, dt: f32) void {
     const crosshair_half_extent_px = 8;
     const crosshair_half_width_px = 1;
 
-    self.gui.pushBox(.{
+    gui.pushBox(.{
         .background_color = .init(1, 1, 1, 0.5),
         .border_color = .init(0, 0, 0, 1),
         .position_sspx = framebuffer_size.mulScalar(0.5).add(.init(-crosshair_half_extent_px, -crosshair_half_width_px)),
@@ -751,7 +742,7 @@ pub fn update(self: *Game, dt: f32) void {
         .border_radius_px = 0,
     });
 
-    self.gui.pushBox(.{
+    gui.pushBox(.{
         .background_color = .init(1, 1, 1, 0.5),
         .border_color = .init(0, 0, 0, 1),
         .position_sspx = framebuffer_size.mulScalar(0.5).add(.init(-crosshair_half_width_px, -crosshair_half_extent_px)),
@@ -788,8 +779,13 @@ pub fn onMouseUp(self: *Game, button: glfw.MouseButton) void {
 }
 
 fn render(self: *Game) !void {
+    const allocator_general = ctx.allocator_general;
+    const window = ctx.window;
+    const swapchain = ctx.swapchain;
+    const gui = ctx.gui;
+
     const framebuffer_width, const framebuffer_height = blk: {
-        const w, const h = self.engine.mode.surface.window.getFramebufferSize();
+        const w, const h = window.getFramebufferSize();
         break :blk [_]u32{ @intCast(w), @intCast(h) };
     };
 
@@ -797,25 +793,25 @@ fn render(self: *Game) !void {
         return;
     }
 
-    if (framebuffer_width != self.swapchain.extent.width or framebuffer_height != self.swapchain.extent.height) {
+    if (framebuffer_width != swapchain.extent.width or framebuffer_height != swapchain.extent.height) {
         try self.recreateSwapchain();
     }
 
-    if (self.swapchain.swapchain == .null_handle) {
+    if (swapchain.swapchain == .null_handle) {
         return;
     }
 
-    self.swapchain.acquire(self.engine) catch |err| switch (err) {
+    swapchain.acquire() catch |err| switch (err) {
         error.OutOfDateKHR => return self.recreateSwapchain(),
         else => return err,
     };
 
     for (self.deferred_command_buffers.items) |*deferred_command_buffer| {
-        deferred_command_buffer.deinit(self.engine);
+        deferred_command_buffer.deinit();
     }
     self.deferred_command_buffers.clearRetainingCapacity();
 
-    const extent = self.swapchain.extent;
+    const extent = swapchain.extent;
 
     const framebuffer_size = vm.Vector2.init(
         @floatFromInt(extent.width),
@@ -864,12 +860,12 @@ fn render(self: *Game) !void {
         .ambientLight = ambient_light,
     };
 
-    const staging_memory = try self.global_uniforms_staging_buffer.map(self.engine);
+    const staging_memory = try self.global_uniforms_staging_buffer.map();
     @memcpy(staging_memory, std.mem.asBytes(&global_uniforms_data));
-    self.global_uniforms_staging_buffer.unmap(self.engine);
+    self.global_uniforms_staging_buffer.unmap();
 
-    try self.deferred_command_buffers.ensureUnusedCapacity(self.allocator, 1);
-    const global_uniforms_transfer_command_buffer = try CommandBuffer.init(self.engine, .transfer);
+    try self.deferred_command_buffers.ensureUnusedCapacity(allocator_general, 1);
+    const global_uniforms_transfer_command_buffer = try CommandBuffer.init(.transfer);
     self.deferred_command_buffers.appendAssumeCapacity(global_uniforms_transfer_command_buffer);
 
     try global_uniforms_transfer_command_buffer.beginCommandBuffer();
@@ -886,64 +882,124 @@ fn render(self: *Game) !void {
     );
     try global_uniforms_transfer_command_buffer.endCommandBuffer();
 
-    try global_uniforms_transfer_command_buffer.submit(self.engine, .{
-        .signal_semaphores = &.{self.global_uniforms_transfer_semaphores[self.swapchain.image_index.?]},
+    try global_uniforms_transfer_command_buffer.submit(.{
+        .signal_semaphores = &.{self.global_uniforms_transfer_semaphores[swapchain.image_index.?]},
     });
 
-    try self.deferred_command_buffers.ensureUnusedCapacity(self.allocator, 1);
-    const command_buffer: CommandBuffer = try .init(self.engine, .graphics);
+    try self.deferred_command_buffers.ensureUnusedCapacity(allocator_general, 1);
+    const command_buffer: CommandBuffer = try .init(.graphics);
     self.deferred_command_buffers.appendAssumeCapacity(command_buffer);
 
     try command_buffer.beginCommandBuffer();
     {
-        command_buffer.beginRenderPass(.{
-            .render_pass = self.swapchain.render_pass,
-            .framebuffer = self.swapchain.swapchain_images[self.swapchain.image_index.?].framebuffer,
+        const swapchain_image = swapchain.getCurrentSwapchainImage();
+
+        command_buffer.pipelineBarrier(.{
+            .src_stage_mask = .{ .color_attachment_output_bit = true },
+            .dst_stage_mask = .{ .color_attachment_output_bit = true },
+            .image_memory_barriers = &.{
+                .{
+                    .src_access_mask = .{},
+                    .dst_access_mask = .{
+                        .color_attachment_read_bit = true,
+                        .color_attachment_write_bit = true,
+                    },
+                    .old_layout = .undefined,
+                    .new_layout = .color_attachment_optimal,
+                    .src_queue_family_index = vk.QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED,
+                    .dst_queue_family_index = vk.QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED,
+                    .image = swapchain_image.image,
+                    .subresource_range = .{
+                        .aspect_mask = .{ .color_bit = true },
+                        .base_mip_level = 0,
+                        .level_count = 1,
+                        .base_array_layer = 0,
+                        .layer_count = 1,
+                    },
+                },
+            },
+        });
+
+        command_buffer.pipelineBarrier(.{
+            .src_stage_mask = .{ .late_fragment_tests_bit = true },
+            .dst_stage_mask = .{ .early_fragment_tests_bit = true },
+            .image_memory_barriers = &.{
+                .{
+                    .src_access_mask = .{
+                        .depth_stencil_attachment_write_bit = true,
+                    },
+                    .dst_access_mask = .{
+                        .depth_stencil_attachment_write_bit = true,
+                    },
+                    .old_layout = .undefined,
+                    .new_layout = .depth_stencil_attachment_optimal,
+                    .src_queue_family_index = vk.QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED,
+                    .dst_queue_family_index = vk.QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED,
+                    .image = swapchain.depth_texture.?.image,
+                    .subresource_range = .{
+                        .aspect_mask = .{ .depth_bit = true },
+                        .base_mip_level = 0,
+                        .level_count = 1,
+                        .base_array_layer = 0,
+                        .layer_count = 1,
+                    },
+                },
+            },
+        });
+
+        try command_buffer.beginRendering(.{
             .render_area = .{
                 .offset = .{ .x = 0, .y = 0 },
                 .extent = extent,
             },
-            .clear_values = &.{
+            .layer_count = 1,
+            .view_mask = 0,
+            .color_attachments = &.{
                 .{
+                    .image_view = swapchain_image.image_view,
+                    .image_layout = .color_attachment_optimal,
+                    .load_op = .clear,
+                    .store_op = .store,
+                    .clear_value = .{
                         .color = .{
                             .float_32 = .{ 0, 0, 0, 0 },
                         },
                     },
-                .{
+                },
+            },
+            .depth_attachment = .{
+                .image_view = swapchain.depth_texture.?.image_view,
+                .image_layout = .depth_attachment_optimal,
+                .load_op = .clear,
+                .store_op = .dont_care,
+                .clear_value = .{
                     .depth_stencil = .{
                         .depth = 0,
                         .stencil = 0,
                     },
                 },
             },
-        }, .@"inline");
-        defer command_buffer.endRenderPass();
+        });
 
-        command_buffer.setViewport(0, &.{
-            .{
+        command_buffer.setViewport(0, .{
             .x = 0,
             .y = 0,
             .width = @floatFromInt(extent.width),
             .height = @floatFromInt(extent.height),
             .min_depth = 0,
             .max_depth = 1,
-            },
         });
-        command_buffer.setScissor(0, &.{
-            .{
+        command_buffer.setScissor(0, .{
             .offset = .{ .x = 0, .y = 0 },
             .extent = extent,
-            },
         });
 
-        // --- SUBPASS 0 (MAIN) ---
+        // --- RENDER 3D SCENE ---
 
         command_buffer.bindPipeline(.graphics, self.pipeline);
-        try command_buffer.bindVertexBuffers(0, &.{
-            .{
+        try command_buffer.bindVertexBuffer(0, .{
             .buffer = self.vertex_buffer.buffer,
             .offset = 0,
-            },
         });
         command_buffer.bindIndexBuffer(self.index_buffer.buffer, 0, .uint16);
         command_buffer.bindDescriptorSet(.graphics, self.pipeline_layout, 0, self.global_descriptor_set, null);
@@ -955,19 +1011,43 @@ fn render(self: *Game) !void {
 
         try self.skybox.draw(command_buffer);
 
-        // --- SUBPASS 1 (GUI) ---
+        // --- RENDER GUI ---
 
-        command_buffer.nextSubpass(.@"inline");
+        try gui.draw(command_buffer);
 
-        try self.gui.draw(self.engine, command_buffer);
+        // --- FINALIZE ---
+
+        command_buffer.endRendering();
+        command_buffer.pipelineBarrier(.{
+            .src_stage_mask = .{ .color_attachment_output_bit = true },
+            .dst_stage_mask = .{ .bottom_of_pipe_bit = true },
+            .image_memory_barriers = &.{
+                .{
+                    .src_access_mask = .{ .color_attachment_write_bit = true },
+                    .dst_access_mask = .{},
+                    .old_layout = .color_attachment_optimal,
+                    .new_layout = .present_src_khr,
+                    .src_queue_family_index = vk.QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED,
+                    .dst_queue_family_index = vk.QUEUE_FAMILY_IGNORED,
+                    .image = swapchain_image.image,
+                    .subresource_range = .{
+                        .aspect_mask = .{ .color_bit = true },
+                        .base_mip_level = 0,
+                        .level_count = 1,
+                        .base_array_layer = 0,
+                        .layer_count = 1,
+                    },
+                },
+            },
+        });
     }
     try command_buffer.endCommandBuffer();
 
-    self.swapchain.present(self.engine, .{
+    swapchain.present(.{
         .command_buffer = command_buffer,
         .wait_semaphores = &.{
             .{
-                .semaphore = self.global_uniforms_transfer_semaphores[self.swapchain.image_index.?],
+                .semaphore = self.global_uniforms_transfer_semaphores[swapchain.image_index.?],
                 .stage_flags = .{ .vertex_shader_bit = true },
             },
         },
@@ -978,10 +1058,13 @@ fn render(self: *Game) !void {
 }
 
 fn recreateSwapchain(self: *Game) !void {
-    try self.swapchain.recreate(self.engine);
+    const engine = ctx.engine;
+    const swapchain = ctx.swapchain;
+
+    try swapchain.recreate();
     for (self.global_uniforms_transfer_semaphores, 0..) |*semaphore, i| {
-        self.engine.destroySemaphore(semaphore.*);
-        semaphore.* = try self.engine.createSemaphore();
-        self.engine.setObjectName(semaphore.*, "S Transfer[{d}]", .{i});
+        engine.destroySemaphore(semaphore.*);
+        semaphore.* = try engine.createSemaphore();
+        engine.setObjectName(semaphore.*, "S Transfer[{d}]", .{i});
     }
 }

src/Player.zig

@@ -253,37 +253,25 @@ pub fn onMouseDown(self: *Player, button: glfw.MouseButton, game: *Game) void {
                 game.chunks.setVoxelAt(
                     raycast_hit.voxel,
                     .air,
-                    game.engine,
                     &game.blocks,
                     game.descriptor_pool,
                     game.per_batch_descriptor_set_layout,
-                    game.allocator,
                 ) catch |err| {
                     std.log.err("Error while destroying voxel {f}: {}", .{ raycast_hit.voxel, err });
                 };
             },
             .right => blk: {
                 const target_vx = raycast_hit.voxel.add(raycast_hit.side.getSignVector());
-                const id = game.blocks.getOrLoad(
-                    game.engine,
-                    &game.materials,
-                    &game.textures,
-                    &game.stbi,
-                    blocks[self.block_index],
-                    game.allocator,
-                    game.io,
-                ) catch |err| {
+                const id = game.blocks.getOrLoad(blocks[self.block_index]) catch |err| {
                     std.log.err("Error while placing voxel at {f}: {}", .{ target_vx, err });
                     break :blk;
                 };
                 game.chunks.setVoxelAt(
                     target_vx,
                     id,
-                    game.engine,
                     &game.blocks,
                     game.descriptor_pool,
                     game.per_batch_descriptor_set_layout,
-                    game.allocator,
                 ) catch |err| {
                     std.log.err("Error while placing voxel at {f}: {}", .{ target_vx, err });
                 };

src/assets/Blocks.zig

@@ -3,13 +3,14 @@
 const Blocks = @This();
 const std = @import("std");
 
+const ctx = @import("../AppContext.zig");
 const media = @import("media");
 const voxels = @import("../voxels.zig");
 
 const Atom = @import("../engine/Atom.zig").Atom;
 const Engine = @import("../engine/Engine.zig");
-const Materials = @import("Materials.zig");
-const Textures = @import("Textures.zig");
+const Materials = @import("../engine/Materials.zig");
+const Textures = @import("../engine/Textures.zig");
 
 pub const Id = enum(u16) {
     // VOLATILE Synchronize explicit values with `init` implementation.
@@ -76,23 +77,26 @@ pub const Definition = struct {
     }
 };
 
-/// Maps a key value to a block definition ID.
+/// Maps a key value to a block definition ID. Preallocated with
+/// `allocator_general`.
 map: std.AutoHashMapUnmanaged(Key, Id),
 /// Stores all `Definition` structs and maps a block definition ID to a
-/// `Definition` struct.
+/// `Definition` struct. Preallocated with `allocator_general`.
 array: std.ArrayList(Definition),
 
 /// With `@sizeOf(Definition) == 24` and `max_blocks = 4096`, the block
 /// definitions should take ~95.4 kiB in RAM.
 pub const max_blocks = 4096;
 
-pub fn init(allocator: std.mem.Allocator) !Blocks {
-    var map: std.AutoHashMapUnmanaged(Key, Id) = .empty;
-    errdefer map.deinit(allocator);
-    try map.ensureTotalCapacity(allocator, max_blocks);
+pub fn init() !Blocks {
+    const allocator_general = ctx.allocator_general;
 
-    var array: std.ArrayList(Definition) = try .initCapacity(allocator, max_blocks);
-    errdefer array.deinit(allocator);
+    var map: std.AutoHashMapUnmanaged(Key, Id) = .empty;
+    errdefer map.deinit(allocator_general);
+    try map.ensureTotalCapacity(allocator_general, max_blocks);
+
+    var array: std.ArrayList(Definition) = try .initCapacity(allocator_general, max_blocks);
+    errdefer array.deinit(allocator_general);
 
     // VOLATILE Synchronize with explicit values on top of `Id` type.
 
@@ -104,11 +108,13 @@ pub fn init(allocator: std.mem.Allocator) !Blocks {
     };
 }
 
-pub fn deinit(self: *Blocks, allocator: std.mem.Allocator) void {
-    std.log.scoped(.deinit).debug("Deinitializing {*} with Allocator{{{*},{*}}}", .{ self, allocator.ptr, allocator.vtable });
+pub fn deinit(self: *Blocks) void {
+    const allocator_general = ctx.allocator_general;
 
-    self.array.deinit(allocator);
-    self.map.deinit(allocator);
+    std.log.scoped(.deinit).debug("Deinitializing {*}", .{self});
+
+    self.array.deinit(allocator_general);
+    self.map.deinit(allocator_general);
     self.* = undefined;
 }
 
@@ -130,20 +136,11 @@ pub fn getAtom(self: *const Blocks, filename: Atom) ?Id {
     });
 }
 
-pub fn getOrLoad(
-    self: *Blocks,
-    engine: *Engine,
-    materials: *Materials,
-    textures: *Textures,
-    stbi: *media.stbi,
-    filename: []const u8,
-    temp_allocator: std.mem.Allocator,
-    io: std.Io,
-) !Id {
+pub fn getOrLoad(self: *Blocks, filename: []const u8) !Id {
     const key: Key = .{
         // If the material already exists, then the atom must exist and the
         // following line will not return any error.
-        .filename = try .fromString(filename, io),
+        .filename = try .fromString(filename),
     };
 
     // We don't use `getOrPutAssumeCapacity` method, because we might already be
@@ -155,7 +152,7 @@ pub fn getOrLoad(
         const id = Id.fromIndexSafe(self.array.items.len) catch |err| switch (err) {
             error.Overflow => return error.OutOfBlocks,
         };
-        const def = try loadBlock(engine, materials, textures, stbi, filename, temp_allocator, io);
+        const def = try loadBlock(filename);
 
         self.map.putAssumeCapacityNoClobber(key, id);
         self.array.appendAssumeCapacity(def);
@@ -164,16 +161,7 @@ pub fn getOrLoad(
     }
 }
 
-pub fn getOrLoadAtom(
-    self: *Blocks,
-    engine: *Engine,
-    materials: *Materials,
-    textures: *Textures,
-    stbi: *media.stbi,
-    filename: Atom,
-    temp_allocator: std.mem.Allocator,
-    io: std.Io,
-) !Id {
+pub fn getOrLoadAtom(self: *Blocks, filename: Atom) !Id {
     const key: Key = .{
         .filename = filename,
     };
@@ -187,7 +175,7 @@ pub fn getOrLoadAtom(
         const id = Id.fromIndexSafe(self.array.items.len) catch |err| switch (err) {
             error.Overflow => return error.OutOfBlocks,
         };
-        const def = try loadBlock(engine, materials, textures, stbi, filename.toString(), temp_allocator, io);
+        const def = try loadBlock(filename.toString());
 
         self.map.putAssumeCapacityNoClobber(key, id);
         self.array.appendAssumeCapacity(def);
@@ -196,15 +184,9 @@ pub fn getOrLoadAtom(
     }
 }
 
-pub fn loadAll(
-    self: *Blocks,
-    engine: *Engine,
-    materials: *Materials,
-    textures: *Textures,
-    stbi: *media.stbi,
-    temp_allocator: std.mem.Allocator,
-    io: std.Io,
-) void {
+pub fn loadAll(self: *Blocks) void {
+    const io = ctx.io;
+
     const cwd = std.Io.Dir.cwd();
 
     var dir = cwd.openDir(io, "assets/blocks", .{ .iterate = true }) catch |err| {
@@ -223,21 +205,17 @@ pub fn loadAll(
             continue;
         }
 
-        _ = self.getOrLoad(engine, materials, textures, stbi, entry.name, temp_allocator, io) catch |err| {
+        _ = self.getOrLoad(entry.name) catch |err| {
             std.log.err("Error while loading block definition entry {s}: {s}", .{ entry.name, @errorName(err) });
         };
     }
 }
 
-fn loadBlock(
-    engine: *Engine,
-    materials: *Materials,
-    textures: *Textures,
-    stbi: *media.stbi,
-    filename: []const u8,
-    temp_allocator: std.mem.Allocator,
-    io: std.Io,
-) !Definition {
+fn loadBlock(filename: []const u8) !Definition {
+    const allocator_frame = ctx.allocator_frame;
+    const io = ctx.io;
+    const materials = ctx.materials;
+
     const DefinitionJson = struct {
         pub const Wall = struct {
             material: ?[]const u8 = null,
@@ -264,17 +242,13 @@ fn loadBlock(
     defer file.close(io);
 
     var file_reader = file.reader(io, &buffer);
-    var json_reader = std.json.Reader.init(temp_allocator, &file_reader.interface);
-    defer json_reader.deinit();
+    var json_reader = std.json.Reader.init(allocator_frame, &file_reader.interface);
 
-    const parsed: std.json.Parsed(DefinitionJson) = try std.json.parseFromTokenSource(DefinitionJson, temp_allocator, &json_reader, .{
+    const def_json = try std.json.parseFromTokenSourceLeaky(DefinitionJson, allocator_frame, &json_reader, .{
         .duplicate_field_behavior = .@"error",
         .ignore_unknown_fields = false,
         .allocate = .alloc_if_needed,
     });
-    defer parsed.deinit();
-
-    const def_json = parsed.value;
 
     const block: Definition = blk: {
         if (def_json.material) |name| {
@@ -283,7 +257,7 @@ fn loadBlock(
                 return error.ParseError;
             }
 
-            const material = try materials.getOrLoad(engine, textures, stbi, name, temp_allocator, io);
+            const material = try materials.getOrLoad(name);
             break :blk .initUniform(material);
         }
 
@@ -293,7 +267,7 @@ fn loadBlock(
                     var ret: Definition.Walls = undefined;
                     inline for (@typeInfo(voxels.Orientation).@"enum".fields) |field| {
                         @field(ret, field.name) = .{
-                            .material = try materials.getOrLoad(engine, textures, stbi, @field(walls, field.name).material, temp_allocator, io),
+                            .material = try materials.getOrLoad(@field(walls, field.name).material),
                             .transform = @field(walls, field.name).transform,
                         };
                     }

src/engine/Atom.zig

@@ -1,16 +1,14 @@
-//! Module for string interning. A string can be converted to a stable integer
-//! constant, called an *atom*. The value of an atom for a given string is
-//! guaranteed to be stable throughout a program's runtime, but not across
-//! different runs. There can be no more than 2¹⁶ atoms.
-//!
-//! Use this module to convert string IDs into numbers, so that they can be
-//! compared more easily. The users of this module should import it with
-//! `@import("Atom.zig").Atom` and use the methods available in the `Atom` type.
-
 const std = @import("std");
 
+const ctx = @import("../AppContext.zig");
+
+/// Interned string ID. A string can be converted to a stable integer constant,
+/// called an *atom*. The value of an atom for a given string is guaranteed to
+/// be stable throughout a program's runtime, but not across different runs.
+/// There can be no more than 2¹⁶ atoms.
 pub const Atom = enum(u16) {
-    // VOLATILE Synchronize explicit values with `init` implementation.
+    // VOLATILE When modifying the list of explicitly defined atoms (i.e. any
+    // explicit enum value), we need to update `Atoms.init` implementation.
 
     /// Atom representing an empty string, i.e. `""`.
     empty,
@@ -36,29 +34,29 @@ pub const Atom = enum(u16) {
     /// Turn a string into an atom. Returns either an existing atom or makes a
     /// new one, if necessary. This will always produce a valid atom. Will not
     /// return any error if the atom already exists.
-    pub fn fromString(string: []const u8, io: std.Io) error{ Canceled, OutOfMemory, OutOfAtoms }!Atom {
-        try mutex.lock(io);
-        defer mutex.unlock(io);
+    pub fn fromString(string: []const u8) error{ OutOfMemory, OutOfAtoms }!Atom {
+        const allocator_persistent = ctx.allocator_persistent;
+        const io = ctx.io;
+        const atoms = ctx.atoms;
 
-        std.debug.assert(initialized);
+        atoms.mutex.lockUncancelable(io);
+        defer atoms.mutex.unlock(io);
 
-        const entry = try map.getOrPut(allocator, string);
+        // We don't use `getOrPutAssumeCapacity` method, because we might
+        // already be at full capacity, in which case we should return
+        // `error.OutOfAtoms`.
 
-        if (entry.found_existing) {
-            return entry.value_ptr.*;
+        if (atoms.map.get(string)) |atom| {
+            return atom;
         } else {
-            errdefer _ = map.remove(string);
-            const atom = Atom.fromIndexSafe(array.items.len) catch |err| switch (err) {
+            const atom = Atom.fromIndexSafe(atoms.array.items.len) catch |err| switch (err) {
                 error.Overflow => return error.OutOfAtoms,
             };
+            const owned_string = try allocator_persistent.dupeZ(u8, string);
 
-            try array.ensureUnusedCapacity(allocator, 1);
-            const owned_string = try toOwnedString(string);
+            atoms.map.putAssumeCapacityNoClobber(owned_string, atom);
+            atoms.array.appendAssumeCapacity(owned_string);
 
-            entry.key_ptr.* = owned_string;
-            entry.value_ptr.* = atom;
-
-            array.appendAssumeCapacity(owned_string);
             return atom;
         }
     }
@@ -66,13 +64,14 @@ pub const Atom = enum(u16) {
     /// Turn a string into an atom, if the string has been already registered as
     /// an atom. Returns `null` otherwise. This will always produce a valid
     /// atom.
-    pub fn fromStringIfExists(string: []const u8, io: std.Io) error{Canceled}!?Atom {
-        try mutex.lock(io);
-        defer mutex.unlock(io);
+    pub fn fromStringIfExists(string: []const u8) ?Atom {
+        const io = ctx.io;
+        const atoms = ctx.atoms;
 
-        std.debug.assert(initialized);
+        atoms.mutex.lockUncancelable(io);
+        defer atoms.mutex.unlock(io);
 
-        return map.get(string);
+        return atoms.map.get(string);
     }
 
     /// Cast an atom into an integer.
@@ -81,87 +80,13 @@ pub const Atom = enum(u16) {
     }
 
     /// Cast an atom into a string. The caller asserts that the atom is valid.
-    pub fn toString(self: Atom, io: std.Io) error{Canceled}![:0]const u8 {
-        try mutex.lock(io);
-        defer mutex.unlock(io);
+    pub fn toString(self: Atom) [:0]const u8 {
+        const io = ctx.io;
+        const atoms = ctx.atoms;
 
-        std.debug.assert(initialized);
+        atoms.mutex.lockUncancelable(io);
+        defer atoms.mutex.unlock(io);
 
-        return array.items[self.toInt()];
+        return atoms.array.items[self.toInt()];
     }
 };
-
-/// Flag for debug purposes, to catch misuses of the API.
-var initialized: bool = false;
-
-/// Allocator used for `map` and `array`. Also used as a child allocator for
-/// `string_arena`.
-var allocator: std.mem.Allocator = undefined;
-
-/// Allocator for all string values. All values of `map` and keys of `map` are
-/// allocated with this arena. The strings are allocated with a null terminator
-/// for interoperability with libraries.
-var string_arena: std.heap.ArenaAllocator = undefined;
-
-/// Maps a string value to an atom value.
-var map: std.StringHashMapUnmanaged(Atom) = undefined;
-
-/// Maps an atom value to a string.
-var array: std.ArrayList([:0]const u8) = undefined;
-
-/// Protects all reads and writes to `map` and `array`.
-var mutex: std.Io.Mutex = .init;
-
-pub fn init(_allocator: std.mem.Allocator, io: std.Io) !void {
-    try mutex.lock(io);
-    defer mutex.unlock(io);
-
-    std.debug.assert(!initialized);
-
-    allocator = _allocator;
-    string_arena = .init(_allocator);
-    map = .{};
-    array = .empty;
-    initialized = true;
-
-    // VOLATILE Synchronize with explicit values on top of `Atom` type.
-    try map.put(allocator, "", .empty);
-    try array.append(allocator, "");
-}
-
-pub fn deinit(io: std.Io) void {
-    mutex.lockUncancelable(io);
-    defer mutex.unlock(io);
-
-    std.log.scoped(.deinit).debug("Deinitializing atoms", .{});
-    std.debug.assert(initialized);
-
-    string_arena.deinit();
-    map.deinit(allocator);
-    array.deinit(allocator);
-
-    allocator = undefined;
-    string_arena = undefined;
-    map = undefined;
-    array = undefined;
-    initialized = false;
-}
-
-/// Dump all atoms in a readable format. Use for debugging. Does not flush the
-/// writer.
-pub fn dump(writer: std.Io.Writer, io: std.Io) void {
-    mutex.lockUncancelable(io);
-    defer mutex.unlock(io);
-
-    std.debug.assert(initialized);
-
-    for (array.items, 0..) |string, i| {
-        const atom: u32 = @intCast(i);
-        writer.print("0x{X:0<8} {s}\n", .{ atom, string });
-    }
-}
-
-fn toOwnedString(string: []const u8) ![:0]const u8 {
-    const owned_string = try string_arena.allocator().dupeZ(u8, string);
-    return owned_string;
-}

src/engine/Atoms.zig

@@ -0,0 +1,75 @@
+//! Module for string interning. A string can be converted to a stable integer
+//! constant, called an *atom*. The value of an atom for a given string is
+//! guaranteed to be stable throughout a program's runtime, but not across
+//! different runs. There can be no more than 2¹⁶ atoms.
+//!
+//! The users should instead import `@import("Atom.zig").Atom` and use the
+//! methods available in the `Atom` type instead of accessing this module
+//! directly.
+//!
+//! This module is intended to be initialized once and to persist until the end
+//! of the whole program's runtime. Trying to use it in any other way will
+//! result in weird behavior.
+
+const Atoms = @This();
+const std = @import("std");
+
+const ctx = @import("../AppContext.zig");
+
+const Atom = @import("Atom.zig").Atom;
+
+/// Maps a string value to an atom value. Preallocated with
+/// `allocator_persistent`.
+map: std.StringHashMapUnmanaged(Atom),
+/// Maps an atom value to a string. Preallocated with `allocator_persistent`.
+array: std.ArrayList([:0]const u8),
+/// Protects all reads and writes to `map` and `array`.
+mutex: std.Io.Mutex,
+
+pub const max_atoms = 1 << @typeInfo(std.meta.Tag(Atom)).int.bits;
+
+pub fn init() !*Atoms {
+    const allocator_persistent = ctx.allocator_persistent;
+
+    const atoms = try allocator_persistent.create(Atoms);
+
+    atoms.* = .{
+        .map = .empty,
+        .array = .empty,
+        .mutex = .init,
+    };
+
+    try atoms.map.ensureTotalCapacity(allocator_persistent, max_atoms);
+    try atoms.array.ensureTotalCapacityPrecise(allocator_persistent, max_atoms);
+
+    // VOLATILE The initial contents of `atoms.map` and `atoms.array` must
+    // correspond to explicitly defined values at the top of the `Atom` type.
+
+    atoms.map.putAssumeCapacityNoClobber("", .empty);
+    atoms.array.appendAssumeCapacity("");
+
+    return atoms;
+}
+
+pub fn deinit(self: *Atoms) void {
+    std.log.scoped(.deinit).debug("Deinitializing {*}", .{self});
+
+    // No waiting; if atoms are in use while deinitializing, something is wrong.
+    std.debug.assert(self.mutex.tryLock());
+
+    self.* = undefined;
+}
+
+/// Dump all atoms in a readable format. Use for debugging. Does not flush the
+/// writer.
+pub fn dump(self: *const Atoms, writer: *std.Io.Writer) void {
+    const io = ctx.io;
+
+    self.mutex.lockUncancelable(io);
+    defer self.mutex.unlock(io);
+
+    for (self.array.items, 0..) |string, i| {
+        const atom: u16 = @intCast(i);
+        writer.print("0x{X:0<4} {s}\n", .{ atom, string });
+    }
+}

src/engine/CommandBuffer.zig

@@ -9,28 +9,28 @@
 const CommandBuffer = @This();
 const std = @import("std");
 
+const ctx = @import("../AppContext.zig");
 const vk = @import("vulkan");
 
 const Engine = @import("Engine.zig");
 const QueueType = @import("QueueType.zig").QueueType;
 
 proxy: vk.CommandBufferProxy,
-allocator: std.mem.Allocator,
 queue_type: QueueType,
 
-pub fn init(engine: *Engine, queue_type: QueueType) !CommandBuffer {
-    const handle = try engine.allocateCommandBuffer(.{
-        .queue_type = queue_type,
-        .level = .primary,
-    });
+pub fn init(queue_type: QueueType) !CommandBuffer {
+    const engine = ctx.engine;
+
+    const handle = try engine.allocateCommandBuffer(.{ .queue_type = queue_type });
     return .{
         .proxy = .init(handle, engine.device.wrapper),
-        .allocator = engine.vk_allocator.allocator,
         .queue_type = queue_type,
     };
 }
 
-pub fn deinit(self: *CommandBuffer, engine: *Engine) void {
+pub fn deinit(self: *CommandBuffer) void {
+    const engine = ctx.engine;
+
     engine.freeCommandBuffer(.{
         .queue_type = self.queue_type,
         .command_buffer = self.proxy.handle,
@@ -38,12 +38,48 @@ pub fn deinit(self: *CommandBuffer, engine: *Engine) void {
     self.* = undefined;
 }
 
-pub fn submit(self: CommandBuffer, engine: *Engine, submit_info: Engine.SubmitInfo) !void {
+pub fn submit(self: CommandBuffer, submit_info: Engine.SubmitInfo) !void {
+    const engine = ctx.engine;
+
     try engine.queueSubmit(self.queue_type, self.proxy.handle, submit_info);
 }
 
 // --- VULKAN WRAPPERS ---------------------------------------------------------
 
+fn ToVkType(comptime T: type) type {
+    if (!std.meta.hasFn(T, "toVk")) {
+        @compileError("Type " ++ T ++ " has no toVk method.");
+    }
+
+    const to_vk_type_info = @typeInfo(@TypeOf(@field(T, "toVk")));
+    return to_vk_type_info.@"fn".return_type.?;
+}
+
+fn toVkOptional(comptime T: type, maybe_value: ?T) !?*const ToVkType(T) {
+    const allocator_frame = ctx.allocator_frame;
+
+    if (maybe_value) |value| {
+        const ptr = try allocator_frame.create(ToVkType(T));
+        if (std.meta.hasFn(T, "toVk")) {
+            ptr.* = value.toVk();
+        }
+        return ptr;
+    } else {
+        return null;
+    }
+}
+
+fn toVkMulti(comptime T: type, values: []const T) ![*]const ToVkType(T) {
+    const allocator_frame = ctx.allocator_frame;
+
+    const slice = try allocator_frame.alloc(ToVkType(T), values.len);
+    for (slice, values) |*y, x| {
+        y.* = x.toVk();
+    }
+
+    return slice.ptr;
+}
+
 pub const DrawIndexed = struct {
     index_count: u32,
     instance_count: u32 = 1,
@@ -61,16 +97,72 @@ pub const PipelineBarrier = struct {
     image_memory_barriers: []const vk.ImageMemoryBarrier = &.{},
 };
 
-pub const RenderPassBeginInfo = struct {
-    render_pass: vk.RenderPass,
-    framebuffer: vk.Framebuffer,
+pub const RenderingAttachmentInfo = struct {
+    image_view: vk.ImageView = .null_handle,
+    image_layout: vk.ImageLayout,
+    resolve_mode: vk.ResolveModeFlags = .{},
+    resolve_image_view: vk.ImageView = .null_handle,
+    resolve_image_layout: vk.ImageLayout = .undefined,
+    load_op: vk.AttachmentLoadOp,
+    store_op: vk.AttachmentStoreOp,
+    clear_value: vk.ClearValue,
+
+    pub fn toVk(self: RenderingAttachmentInfo) vk.RenderingAttachmentInfo {
+        return .{
+            .image_view = self.image_view,
+            .image_layout = self.image_layout,
+            .resolve_mode = self.resolve_mode,
+            .resolve_image_view = self.resolve_image_view,
+            .resolve_image_layout = self.resolve_image_layout,
+            .load_op = self.load_op,
+            .store_op = self.store_op,
+            .clear_value = self.clear_value,
+        };
+    }
+};
+
+pub const RenderingInfo = struct {
+    flags: vk.RenderingFlags = .{},
     render_area: vk.Rect2D,
-    clear_values: []const vk.ClearValue = &.{},
+    layer_count: u32,
+    view_mask: u32,
+    color_attachments: []const RenderingAttachmentInfo = &.{},
+    depth_attachment: ?RenderingAttachmentInfo = null,
+    stencil_attachment: ?RenderingAttachmentInfo = null,
+
+    pub fn toVk(self: RenderingInfo) !vk.RenderingInfo {
+        return .{
+            .flags = self.flags,
+            .render_area = self.render_area,
+            .layer_count = self.layer_count,
+            .view_mask = self.view_mask,
+            .color_attachment_count = @intCast(self.color_attachments.len),
+            .p_color_attachments = try toVkMulti(RenderingAttachmentInfo, self.color_attachments),
+            .p_depth_attachment = try toVkOptional(RenderingAttachmentInfo, self.depth_attachment),
+            .p_stencil_attachment = try toVkOptional(RenderingAttachmentInfo, self.stencil_attachment),
+        };
+    }
 };
 
 pub const VertexBufferBinding = struct {
     buffer: vk.Buffer,
     offset: usize,
+
+    pub fn transpose(vertex_buffer_bindings: []const VertexBufferBinding) !struct { []const vk.Buffer, []const usize } {
+        const allocator_frame = ctx.allocator_frame;
+
+        var t: std.MultiArrayList(VertexBufferBinding) = .empty;
+        try t.ensureTotalCapacity(allocator_frame, vertex_buffer_bindings.len);
+
+        for (vertex_buffer_bindings) |binding| {
+            t.appendAssumeCapacity(binding);
+        }
+
+        return .{
+            t.items(.buffer),
+            t.items(.offset),
+        };
+    }
 };
 
 pub fn beginCommandBuffer(self: CommandBuffer) !void {
@@ -81,14 +173,9 @@ pub fn beginCommandBuffer(self: CommandBuffer) !void {
     });
 }
 
-pub fn beginRenderPass(self: CommandBuffer, render_pass_begin: RenderPassBeginInfo, contents: vk.SubpassContents) void {
-    self.proxy.beginRenderPass(&.{
-        .render_pass = render_pass_begin.render_pass,
-        .framebuffer = render_pass_begin.framebuffer,
-        .render_area = render_pass_begin.render_area,
-        .clear_value_count = @intCast(render_pass_begin.clear_values.len),
-        .p_clear_values = render_pass_begin.clear_values.ptr,
-    }, contents);
+pub fn beginRendering(self: CommandBuffer, rendering_info: RenderingInfo) !void {
+    const rendering_info_vk = try rendering_info.toVk();
+    self.proxy.beginRendering(&rendering_info_vk);
 }
 
 pub fn bindDescriptorSet(
@@ -125,46 +212,21 @@ pub fn bindDescriptorSets(
     );
 }
 
-pub fn bindPipeline(self: CommandBuffer, pipeline_bind_point: vk.PipelineBindPoint, pipeline: vk.Pipeline) void {
-    self.proxy.bindPipeline(pipeline_bind_point, pipeline);
-}
-
 pub fn bindIndexBuffer(self: CommandBuffer, buffer: vk.Buffer, offset: u64, index_type: vk.IndexType) void {
     self.proxy.bindIndexBuffer(buffer, offset, index_type);
 }
 
+pub fn bindPipeline(self: CommandBuffer, pipeline_bind_point: vk.PipelineBindPoint, pipeline: vk.Pipeline) void {
+    self.proxy.bindPipeline(pipeline_bind_point, pipeline);
+}
+
+pub fn bindVertexBuffer(self: CommandBuffer, index: u32, binding: VertexBufferBinding) !void {
+    self.proxy.bindVertexBuffers(index, &.{binding.buffer}, &.{binding.offset});
+}
+
 pub fn bindVertexBuffers(self: CommandBuffer, first_binding: u32, bindings: []const VertexBufferBinding) !void {
-    var vertex_buffer_bindings = std.MultiArrayList(VertexBufferBinding){};
-    defer vertex_buffer_bindings.deinit(self.allocator);
-    try vertex_buffer_bindings.ensureTotalCapacity(self.allocator, bindings.len);
-
-    for (bindings) |binding| {
-        vertex_buffer_bindings.appendAssumeCapacity(binding);
-    }
-
-    self.proxy.bindVertexBuffers(
-        first_binding,
-        vertex_buffer_bindings.items(.buffer),
-        vertex_buffer_bindings.items(.offset),
-    );
-}
-
-pub fn drawIndexed(self: CommandBuffer, draw_indexed: DrawIndexed) void {
-    self.proxy.drawIndexed(
-        draw_indexed.index_count,
-        draw_indexed.instance_count,
-        draw_indexed.first_index,
-        draw_indexed.vertex_offset,
-        draw_indexed.first_instance,
-    );
-}
-
-pub fn endCommandBuffer(self: CommandBuffer) !void {
-    try self.proxy.endCommandBuffer();
-}
-
-pub fn endRenderPass(self: CommandBuffer) void {
-    self.proxy.endRenderPass();
+    const buffers, const offsets = try VertexBufferBinding.transpose(bindings);
+    self.proxy.bindVertexBuffers(first_binding, buffers, offsets);
 }
 
 pub fn copyBuffer(
@@ -186,8 +248,22 @@ pub fn copyBufferToImage(
     self.proxy.copyBufferToImage(src_buffer, dst_image, dst_image_layout, regions);
 }
 
-pub fn nextSubpass(self: CommandBuffer, contents: vk.SubpassContents) void {
-    self.proxy.nextSubpass(contents);
+pub fn drawIndexed(self: CommandBuffer, draw_indexed: DrawIndexed) void {
+    self.proxy.drawIndexed(
+        draw_indexed.index_count,
+        draw_indexed.instance_count,
+        draw_indexed.first_index,
+        draw_indexed.vertex_offset,
+        draw_indexed.first_instance,
+    );
+}
+
+pub fn endCommandBuffer(self: CommandBuffer) !void {
+    try self.proxy.endCommandBuffer();
+}
+
+pub fn endRendering(self: CommandBuffer) void {
+    self.proxy.endRendering();
 }
 
 pub fn pipelineBarrier(self: CommandBuffer, barrier: PipelineBarrier) void {
@@ -201,10 +277,18 @@ pub fn pipelineBarrier(self: CommandBuffer, barrier: PipelineBarrier) void {
     );
 }
 
-pub fn setScissor(self: CommandBuffer, first_scissor: u32, scissors: []const vk.Rect2D) void {
+pub fn setScissor(self: CommandBuffer, index: u32, scissor: vk.Rect2D) void {
+    self.proxy.setScissor(index, &.{scissor});
+}
+
+pub fn setScissors(self: CommandBuffer, first_scissor: u32, scissors: []const vk.Rect2D) void {
     self.proxy.setScissor(first_scissor, scissors);
 }
 
-pub fn setViewport(self: CommandBuffer, first_viewport: u32, viewports: []const vk.Viewport) void {
+pub fn setViewport(self: CommandBuffer, index: u32, viewports: vk.Viewport) void {
+    self.proxy.setViewport(index, &.{viewports});
+}
+
+pub fn setViewports(self: CommandBuffer, first_viewport: u32, viewports: []const vk.Viewport) void {
     self.proxy.setViewport(first_viewport, viewports);
 }

src/engine/DeviceAllocation.zig

@@ -0,0 +1,62 @@
+const std = @import("std");
+const DeviceAllocation = @This();
+
+const ctx = @import("../AppContext.zig");
+const vk = @import("vulkan");
+
+device_memory: vk.DeviceMemory,
+memory_type_index: u32,
+allocated: usize,
+capacity: usize,
+
+/// Dummy `DeviceAllocation`, which isn't safe to use, but it is safe to call
+/// `deinit` on it (once).
+pub const empty: DeviceAllocation = .{
+    .device_memory = .null_handle,
+    .memory_type_index = vk.MAX_MEMORY_TYPES,
+    .allocated = 0,
+    .capacity = 0,
+};
+
+pub fn deinit(self: *DeviceAllocation) void {
+    const engine = ctx.engine;
+
+    engine.freeMemory(self.device_memory);
+    self.* = undefined;
+}
+
+pub fn bindBuffer(self: *DeviceAllocation, buffer: vk.Buffer) !void {
+    const engine = ctx.engine;
+
+    const memory_requirements = engine.getBufferMemoryRequirements(buffer);
+    const is_type = memory_requirements.memory_type_bits & (@as(u32, 1) << @truncate(self.memory_type_index)) != 0;
+    std.debug.assert(is_type);
+
+    const offset = std.mem.alignForward(usize, self.allocated, memory_requirements.alignment);
+    const next_allocated = offset + memory_requirements.size;
+
+    if (next_allocated > self.capacity) {
+        return error.OutOfMemory;
+    }
+
+    try engine.bindBufferMemory(buffer, self.device_memory, offset);
+    self.allocated = next_allocated;
+}
+
+pub fn bindImage(self: *DeviceAllocation, image: vk.Image) !void {
+    const engine = ctx.engine;
+
+    const memory_requirements = engine.getImageMemoryRequirements(image);
+    const is_type = memory_requirements.memory_type_bits & (@as(u32, 1) << @truncate(self.memory_type_index)) != 0;
+    std.debug.assert(is_type);
+
+    const offset = std.mem.alignForward(usize, self.allocated, memory_requirements.alignment);
+    const next_allocated = offset + memory_requirements.size;
+
+    if (next_allocated > self.capacity) {
+        return error.OutOfMemory;
+    }
+
+    try engine.bindImageMemory(image, self.device_memory, offset);
+    self.allocated = next_allocated;
+}

src/engine/Engine.zig

@@ -2,25 +2,16 @@ const Engine = @This();
 const std = @import("std");
 
 const c = @import("../const.zig");
+const ctx = @import("../AppContext.zig");
 const glfw = @import("zglfw");
 const vk = @import("vulkan");
 
+const DeviceAllocation = @import("DeviceAllocation.zig");
 const Queue = @import("Queue.zig");
 const QueueType = @import("QueueType.zig").QueueType;
 const VkAllocator = @import("VkAllocator.zig");
 const WaitSemaphore = @import("WaitSemaphore.zig");
 
-pub const Mode = union(enum) {
-    headless: void,
-    surface: struct {
-        window: *glfw.Window,
-        surface: vk.SurfaceKHR,
-        presentation_queue: Queue,
-    },
-};
-
-pub const ModeTag = std.meta.Tag(Mode);
-
 const QueueAllocator = struct {
     queue_families_properties_buffer: [max_queue_families]vk.QueueFamilyProperties,
     queue_families_in_use: [max_queue_families]u32,
@@ -69,18 +60,15 @@ const QueueAllocations = struct {
     graphics_queue: Queue.Allocation,
     compute_queue: Queue.Allocation,
     transfer_queue: Queue.Allocation,
-    /// Defined only in `surface` mode, `undefined` otherwise.
     presentation_queue: Queue.Allocation,
 };
 
 const DebugUtilsMessenger = if (debug) vk.DebugUtilsMessengerEXT else void;
 
-mode: Mode,
-vk_allocator: *VkAllocator,
-
 base: vk.BaseWrapper,
 instance: vk.InstanceProxy,
 device: vk.DeviceProxy,
+surface: vk.SurfaceKHR,
 
 debug_utils_messenger: DebugUtilsMessenger,
 physical_device: vk.PhysicalDevice,
@@ -90,6 +78,7 @@ memory_heaps: std.ArrayList(vk.MemoryHeap),
 graphics_queue: Queue,
 compute_queue: Queue,
 transfer_queue: Queue,
+presentation_queue: Queue,
 
 graphics_command_pool: vk.CommandPool,
 compute_command_pool: vk.CommandPool,
@@ -99,15 +88,12 @@ prng_ptr: *std.Random.Pcg,
 random: std.Random,
 
 const debug = @import("builtin").mode == .Debug;
-
-const vk_application_info: vk.ApplicationInfo = .{
-    .p_application_name = c.app_name,
-    .application_version = @bitCast(vk_version),
-    .p_engine_name = c.app_name,
-    .engine_version = @bitCast(vk_version),
-    .api_version = @bitCast(vk.API_VERSION_1_4),
-};
-
+const vk_version: vk.Version = vk.makeApiVersion(
+    0,
+    c.app_version.major,
+    c.app_version.minor,
+    c.app_version.patch,
+);
 const vk_debug_utils_messenger_create_info: vk.DebugUtilsMessengerCreateInfoEXT = .{
     .message_severity = .{
         .verbose_bit_ext = false,
@@ -124,16 +110,13 @@ const vk_debug_utils_messenger_create_info: vk.DebugUtilsMessengerCreateInfoEXT
     .p_user_data = null,
 };
 
-const vk_version: vk.Version = vk.makeApiVersion(
-    0,
-    c.app_version.major,
-    c.app_version.minor,
-    c.app_version.patch,
-);
+pub fn init() !*Engine {
+    const allocator_persistent = ctx.allocator_persistent;
+    const io = ctx.io;
+    const window = ctx.window;
 
-pub fn init(allocator: std.mem.Allocator, io: std.Io, maybe_window: ?*glfw.Window) !Engine {
-    const vk_allocator = try VkAllocator.init(allocator, io);
-    errdefer vk_allocator.deinit();
+    const engine = try allocator_persistent.create(Engine);
+    errdefer allocator_persistent.destroy(engine);
 
     // --- LOAD BASE DISPATCH --------------------------------------------------
 
@@ -149,35 +132,39 @@ pub fn init(allocator: std.mem.Allocator, io: std.Io, maybe_window: ?*glfw.Windo
             try enabled_extensions.appendBounded(vk.extensions.ext_debug_utils.name);
         }
 
-        if (maybe_window != null) {
         const glfw_instance_extensions = try glfw.getRequiredInstanceExtensions();
         try enabled_extensions.appendSliceBounded(glfw_instance_extensions);
-        }
 
         const enabled_layers: []const [*:0]const u8 = if (debug) &.{"VK_LAYER_KHRONOS_validation"} else &.{};
 
         break :blk try base.createInstance(&.{
-            .p_application_info = &vk_application_info,
+            .p_application_info = &.{
+                .p_application_name = c.app_name,
+                .application_version = vk_version.toU32(),
+                .p_engine_name = c.app_name,
+                .engine_version = vk_version.toU32(),
+                .api_version = @bitCast(vk.API_VERSION_1_4),
+            },
             .enabled_layer_count = enabled_layers.len,
             .pp_enabled_layer_names = enabled_layers.ptr,
             .enabled_extension_count = @intCast(enabled_extensions.items.len),
             .pp_enabled_extension_names = enabled_extensions.items.ptr,
             .p_next = if (debug) &vk_debug_utils_messenger_create_info else null,
-        }, &vk_allocator.interface);
+        }, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
     };
 
-    const instance_wrapper_ptr = try allocator.create(vk.InstanceWrapper);
-    errdefer allocator.destroy(instance_wrapper_ptr);
+    const instance_wrapper_ptr = try allocator_persistent.create(vk.InstanceWrapper);
+    errdefer allocator_persistent.destroy(instance_wrapper_ptr);
 
     instance_wrapper_ptr.* = .load(instance_handle, base.dispatch.vkGetInstanceProcAddr.?);
     const instance = vk.InstanceProxy.init(instance_handle, instance_wrapper_ptr);
-    errdefer instance.destroyInstance(&vk_allocator.interface);
+    errdefer instance.destroyInstance(ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
 
     // --- CREATE DEBUG UTILS MESSENGER ----------------------------------------
 
-    const debug_utils_messenger: DebugUtilsMessenger = if (debug) try instance.createDebugUtilsMessengerEXT(&vk_debug_utils_messenger_create_info, &vk_allocator.interface) else {};
+    const debug_utils_messenger: DebugUtilsMessenger = if (debug) try instance.createDebugUtilsMessengerEXT(&vk_debug_utils_messenger_create_info, ctx.vk_allocator.capture()) else {};
     errdefer {
-        if (debug) instance.destroyDebugUtilsMessengerEXT(debug_utils_messenger, &vk_allocator.interface);
+        if (debug) instance.destroyDebugUtilsMessengerEXT(debug_utils_messenger, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
     }
 
     // --- CHOOSE PHYSICAL DEVICE, GET ITS MEMORY PROPERTIES -------------------
@@ -208,20 +195,18 @@ pub fn init(allocator: std.mem.Allocator, io: std.Io, maybe_window: ?*glfw.Windo
 
     const physical_device_memory_properties = instance.getPhysicalDeviceMemoryProperties(physical_device);
 
-    var memory_types = try std.ArrayList(vk.MemoryType).initCapacity(allocator, vk.MAX_MEMORY_TYPES);
-    errdefer memory_types.deinit(allocator);
+    var memory_types = try std.ArrayList(vk.MemoryType).initCapacity(allocator_persistent, vk.MAX_MEMORY_TYPES);
     memory_types.appendSliceAssumeCapacity(physical_device_memory_properties.memory_types[0..physical_device_memory_properties.memory_type_count]);
 
-    var memory_heaps = try std.ArrayList(vk.MemoryHeap).initCapacity(allocator, vk.MAX_MEMORY_HEAPS);
-    errdefer memory_heaps.deinit(allocator);
+    var memory_heaps = try std.ArrayList(vk.MemoryHeap).initCapacity(allocator_persistent, vk.MAX_MEMORY_HEAPS);
     memory_heaps.appendSliceAssumeCapacity(physical_device_memory_properties.memory_heaps[0..physical_device_memory_properties.memory_heap_count]);
 
     // --- CREATE SURFACE ------------------------------------------------------
 
     var surface: vk.SurfaceKHR = undefined;
-    if (maybe_window) |window| try glfw.createWindowSurface(instance_handle, window, &vk_allocator.interface, &surface);
+    try glfw.createWindowSurface(instance_handle, window, ctx.vk_allocator.capture(), &surface);
     errdefer {
-        if (maybe_window != null) instance.destroySurfaceKHR(surface, &vk_allocator.interface);
+        instance.destroySurfaceKHR(surface, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
     }
 
     // --- ALLOCATE QUEUES -----------------------------------------------------
@@ -238,12 +223,12 @@ pub fn init(allocator: std.mem.Allocator, io: std.Io, maybe_window: ?*glfw.Windo
         const graphics_queue_family = findGraphicsQueueFamily(queue_families_properties) orelse return error.NoGraphicsQueue;
         const compute_queue_family = findComputeQueueFamily(queue_families_properties) orelse return error.NoComputeQueue;
         const transfer_queue_family = findTransferQueueFamily(queue_families_properties) orelse return error.NoTransferQueue;
-        const presentation_queue_family = if (maybe_window != null) (try findPresentationQueueFamily(queue_families_properties, instance, physical_device, surface) orelse return error.NoPresentationQueue) else undefined;
+        const presentation_queue_family = try findPresentationQueueFamily(queue_families_properties, instance, physical_device, surface) orelse return error.NoPresentationQueue;
 
         const graphics_queue_index = queue_allocator.allocateQueueIndex(graphics_queue_family);
         const compute_queue_index = queue_allocator.allocateQueueIndex(compute_queue_family);
         const transfer_queue_index = queue_allocator.allocateQueueIndex(transfer_queue_family);
-        const presentation_queue_index = if (maybe_window != null) queue_allocator.allocateQueueIndex(presentation_queue_family) else undefined;
+        const presentation_queue_index = queue_allocator.allocateQueueIndex(presentation_queue_family);
 
         const queue_priorities = [_]f32{1.0} ** max_queues;
 
@@ -261,7 +246,7 @@ pub fn init(allocator: std.mem.Allocator, io: std.Io, maybe_window: ?*glfw.Windo
             .graphics_queue = .{ .family = graphics_queue_family, .index = graphics_queue_index },
             .compute_queue = .{ .family = compute_queue_family, .index = compute_queue_index },
             .transfer_queue = .{ .family = transfer_queue_family, .index = transfer_queue_index },
-            .presentation_queue = if (maybe_window != null) .{ .family = presentation_queue_family, .index = presentation_queue_index } else undefined,
+            .presentation_queue = .{ .family = presentation_queue_family, .index = presentation_queue_index },
         };
     };
 
@@ -271,15 +256,16 @@ pub fn init(allocator: std.mem.Allocator, io: std.Io, maybe_window: ?*glfw.Windo
         var enabled_extensions_buffer: [16][*:0]const u8 = undefined;
         var enabled_extensions: std.ArrayList([*:0]const u8) = .initBuffer(&enabled_extensions_buffer);
 
-        if (maybe_window != null) {
         try enabled_extensions.appendBounded(vk.extensions.khr_swapchain.name);
-        }
 
-        const enabled_features_vulkan10: vk.PhysicalDeviceFeatures = .{
+        var enabled_features_vulkan10: vk.PhysicalDeviceFeatures2 = .{
+            .features = .{
                 .shader_int_16 = .true,
+            },
         };
 
         var enabled_features_vulkan11: vk.PhysicalDeviceVulkan11Features = .{
+            .p_next = &enabled_features_vulkan10,
             .storage_buffer_16_bit_access = .true,
             .uniform_and_storage_buffer_16_bit_access = .true,
         };
@@ -316,36 +302,35 @@ pub fn init(allocator: std.mem.Allocator, io: std.Io, maybe_window: ?*glfw.Windo
             .p_queue_create_infos = queue_create_info.items.ptr,
             .enabled_extension_count = @intCast(enabled_extensions.items.len),
             .pp_enabled_extension_names = enabled_extensions.items.ptr,
-            .p_enabled_features = &enabled_features_vulkan10,
-        }, &vk_allocator.interface);
+        }, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
     };
 
-    const device_wrapper_ptr = try allocator.create(vk.DeviceWrapper);
-    errdefer allocator.destroy(device_wrapper_ptr);
+    const device_wrapper_ptr = try allocator_persistent.create(vk.DeviceWrapper);
+    errdefer allocator_persistent.destroy(device_wrapper_ptr);
 
     device_wrapper_ptr.* = .load(device_handle, instance.wrapper.dispatch.vkGetDeviceProcAddr.?);
     const device = vk.DeviceProxy.init(device_handle, device_wrapper_ptr);
-    errdefer device.destroyDevice(&vk_allocator.interface);
+    errdefer device.destroyDevice(ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
 
     // --- CREATE COMMAND POOLS, GET QUEUES ------------------------------------
 
     const graphics_command_pool = try device.createCommandPool(&.{
         .flags = .{ .transient_bit = true },
         .queue_family_index = queue_allocations.graphics_queue.family,
-    }, &vk_allocator.interface);
-    errdefer device.destroyCommandPool(graphics_command_pool, &vk_allocator.interface);
+    }, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
+    errdefer device.destroyCommandPool(graphics_command_pool, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
 
     const compute_command_pool = try device.createCommandPool(&.{
         .flags = .{ .transient_bit = true },
         .queue_family_index = queue_allocations.compute_queue.family,
-    }, &vk_allocator.interface);
-    errdefer device.destroyCommandPool(compute_command_pool, &vk_allocator.interface);
+    }, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
+    errdefer device.destroyCommandPool(compute_command_pool, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
 
     const transfer_command_pool = try device.createCommandPool(&.{
         .flags = .{ .transient_bit = true },
         .queue_family_index = queue_allocations.transfer_queue.family,
-    }, &vk_allocator.interface);
-    errdefer device.destroyCommandPool(transfer_command_pool, &vk_allocator.interface);
+    }, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
+    errdefer device.destroyCommandPool(transfer_command_pool, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
 
     const graphics_queue = Queue.init(
         device.getDeviceQueue(
@@ -368,18 +353,18 @@ pub fn init(allocator: std.mem.Allocator, io: std.Io, maybe_window: ?*glfw.Windo
         ),
         queue_allocations.transfer_queue,
     );
-    const presentation_queue: Queue = if (maybe_window != null) .init(
+    const presentation_queue = Queue.init(
         device.getDeviceQueue(
             queue_allocations.presentation_queue.family,
             queue_allocations.presentation_queue.index,
         ),
         queue_allocations.presentation_queue,
-    ) else undefined;
+    );
 
     // --- CREATE AND SEED RNG -------------------------------------------------
 
-    const prng_ptr = try allocator.create(std.Random.Pcg);
-    errdefer allocator.destroy(prng_ptr);
+    const prng_ptr = try allocator_persistent.create(std.Random.Pcg);
+    errdefer allocator_persistent.destroy(prng_ptr);
 
     const timestamp: u64 = @bitCast(@as(i64, @truncate(std.Io.Timestamp.now(io, .awake).nanoseconds)));
     prng_ptr.* = .init(timestamp);
@@ -387,17 +372,11 @@ pub fn init(allocator: std.mem.Allocator, io: std.Io, maybe_window: ?*glfw.Windo
 
     // -------------------------------------------------------------------------
 
-    return .{
-        .mode = if (maybe_window) |window| .{ .surface = .{
-            .window = window,
-            .surface = surface,
-            .presentation_queue = presentation_queue,
-        } } else .{ .headless = {} },
-        .vk_allocator = vk_allocator,
-
+    engine.* = .{
         .base = base,
         .instance = instance,
         .device = device,
+        .surface = surface,
 
         .debug_utils_messenger = debug_utils_messenger,
         .physical_device = physical_device,
@@ -407,6 +386,7 @@ pub fn init(allocator: std.mem.Allocator, io: std.Io, maybe_window: ?*glfw.Windo
         .graphics_queue = graphics_queue,
         .compute_queue = compute_queue,
         .transfer_queue = transfer_queue,
+        .presentation_queue = presentation_queue,
 
         .graphics_command_pool = graphics_command_pool,
         .compute_command_pool = compute_command_pool,
@@ -415,52 +395,68 @@ pub fn init(allocator: std.mem.Allocator, io: std.Io, maybe_window: ?*glfw.Windo
         .prng_ptr = prng_ptr,
         .random = random,
     };
+
+    return engine;
 }
 
 pub fn deinit(self: *Engine) void {
     std.log.scoped(.deinit).debug("Deinitializing {*}", .{self});
 
-    const allocator = self.vk_allocator.allocator;
+    self.device.destroyCommandPool(self.graphics_command_pool, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
+    self.device.destroyCommandPool(self.compute_command_pool, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
+    self.device.destroyCommandPool(self.transfer_command_pool, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
 
-    allocator.destroy(self.prng_ptr);
+    self.device.destroyDevice(ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
+    self.instance.destroySurfaceKHR(self.surface, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
 
-    self.device.destroyCommandPool(self.graphics_command_pool, &self.vk_allocator.interface);
-    self.device.destroyCommandPool(self.compute_command_pool, &self.vk_allocator.interface);
-    self.device.destroyCommandPool(self.transfer_command_pool, &self.vk_allocator.interface);
+    if (debug) self.instance.destroyDebugUtilsMessengerEXT(self.debug_utils_messenger, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
 
-    self.device.destroyDevice(&self.vk_allocator.interface);
-    allocator.destroy(self.device.wrapper);
-
-    if (std.meta.activeTag(self.mode) == .surface) {
-        self.instance.destroySurfaceKHR(self.mode.surface.surface, &self.vk_allocator.interface);
-    }
-
-    self.memory_heaps.deinit(allocator);
-    self.memory_types.deinit(allocator);
-
-    if (debug) self.instance.destroyDebugUtilsMessengerEXT(self.debug_utils_messenger, &self.vk_allocator.interface);
-
-    self.instance.destroyInstance(&self.vk_allocator.interface);
-    allocator.destroy(self.instance.wrapper);
-
-    self.vk_allocator.deinit();
+    self.instance.destroyInstance(ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
 
     self.* = undefined;
 }
 
 pub fn allocate(self: *const Engine, memory_requirements: vk.MemoryRequirements, memory_property_flags: vk.MemoryPropertyFlags) !vk.DeviceMemory {
-    for (self.memory_types.items, 0..) |memory_type, i| {
-        const is_type = memory_requirements.memory_type_bits & (@as(u32, 1) << @truncate(i)) != 0;
-        const has_flags = memory_type.property_flags.contains(memory_property_flags);
-        if (is_type and has_flags) {
-            return try self.device.allocateMemory(&.{
-                .allocation_size = memory_requirements.size,
-                .memory_type_index = @truncate(i),
-            }, &self.vk_allocator.interface);
-        }
-    }
+    const memory_type_index = try self.findMemoryTypeIndex(memory_requirements.memory_type_bits, memory_property_flags);
 
-    return error.NoSuitableMemoryType;
+    return self.device.allocateMemory(&.{
+        .allocation_size = memory_requirements.size,
+        .memory_type_index = memory_type_index,
+    }, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
+}
+
+/// Allocate `vk.DeviceMemory` suitable for image created by given
+/// `create_info`, except the allocation is `size` bytes large.
+pub fn allocateForImage(
+    self: *const Engine,
+    create_info: ImageCreateInfo,
+    plane_aspect: vk.ImageAspectFlags,
+    size: usize,
+    memory_property_flags: vk.MemoryPropertyFlags,
+) !DeviceAllocation {
+    const create_info_vk = try create_info.toVk();
+
+    var memory_requirements2: vk.MemoryRequirements2 = .{
+        .memory_requirements = undefined,
+    };
+    self.device.getDeviceImageMemoryRequirements(&.{
+        .p_create_info = &create_info_vk,
+        .plane_aspect = plane_aspect,
+    }, &memory_requirements2);
+
+    const memory_requirements = memory_requirements2.memory_requirements;
+    const memory_type_index = try self.findMemoryTypeIndex(memory_requirements.memory_type_bits, memory_property_flags);
+    const device_memory = try self.device.allocateMemory(&.{
+        .allocation_size = size,
+        .memory_type_index = memory_type_index,
+    }, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
+
+    return .{
+        .device_memory = device_memory,
+        .allocated = 0,
+        .capacity = size,
+        .memory_type_index = memory_type_index,
+    };
 }
 
 pub fn setObjectName(self: *const Engine, handle: anytype, comptime fmt: []const u8, args: anytype) void {
@@ -534,6 +530,8 @@ pub fn queueSubmit(
     command_buffer: vk.CommandBuffer,
     submit_info: SubmitInfo,
 ) !void {
+    const allocator_frame = ctx.allocator_frame;
+
     const queue = switch (queue_type) {
         .graphics => self.graphics_queue.handle,
         .compute => self.compute_queue.handle,
@@ -543,8 +541,8 @@ pub fn queueSubmit(
     const command_buffers = [_]vk.CommandBuffer{command_buffer};
 
     var wait_semaphores = std.MultiArrayList(WaitSemaphore){};
-    defer wait_semaphores.deinit(self.vk_allocator.allocator);
-    try wait_semaphores.ensureTotalCapacity(self.vk_allocator.allocator, submit_info.wait_semaphores.len);
+    defer wait_semaphores.deinit(allocator_frame);
+    try wait_semaphores.ensureTotalCapacity(allocator_frame, submit_info.wait_semaphores.len);
 
     for (submit_info.wait_semaphores) |wait_semaphore| {
         wait_semaphores.appendAssumeCapacity(wait_semaphore);
@@ -575,7 +573,7 @@ pub fn queuePresent(self: *Engine, present_info: PresentInfo) !vk.Result {
     const swapchains = [_]vk.SwapchainKHR{present_info.swapchain};
     const image_indices = [_]u32{present_info.image_index};
 
-    const res = try self.device.queuePresentKHR(self.mode.surface.presentation_queue.handle, &.{
+    const res = try self.device.queuePresentKHR(self.presentation_queue.handle, &.{
         .wait_semaphore_count = @intCast(present_info.wait_semaphores.len),
         .p_wait_semaphores = present_info.wait_semaphores.ptr,
         .swapchain_count = swapchains.len,
@@ -692,8 +690,16 @@ fn findPresentationQueueFamily(queue_families_properties: []const vk.QueueFamily
     return null;
 }
 
-fn makeArena(self: *const Engine) std.heap.ArenaAllocator {
-    return .init(self.vk_allocator.allocator);
+fn findMemoryTypeIndex(self: *const Engine, memory_type_bits: u32, memory_property_flags: vk.MemoryPropertyFlags) !u32 {
+    for (self.memory_types.items, 0..) |memory_type, i| {
+        const is_type = memory_type_bits & (@as(u32, 1) << @truncate(i)) != 0;
+        const has_flags = memory_type.property_flags.contains(memory_property_flags);
+        if (is_type and has_flags) {
+            return @truncate(i);
+        }
+    }
+
+    return error.NoSuitableMemoryType;
 }
 
 fn resolveCommandPool(self: *const Engine, queue_type: QueueType) vk.CommandPool {
@@ -721,7 +727,7 @@ pub const BufferCreateInfo = struct {
 
 pub const CommandBufferAllocateInfo = struct {
     queue_type: QueueType,
-    level: vk.CommandBufferLevel,
+    level: vk.CommandBufferLevel = .primary,
 };
 
 pub const CommandBufferFreeInfo = struct {
@@ -766,15 +772,6 @@ pub const DescriptorSetsUpdateInfo = struct {
     copies: []const vk.CopyDescriptorSet = &.{},
 };
 
-pub const FramebufferCreateInfo = struct {
-    flags: vk.FramebufferCreateFlags = .{},
-    render_pass: vk.RenderPass,
-    attachments: []const vk.ImageView = &.{},
-    width: u32,
-    height: u32,
-    layers: u32,
-};
-
 pub const GraphicsPipelineCreateInfo = struct {
     flags: vk.PipelineCreateFlags = .{},
     stages: []const PipelineShaderStageCreateInfo = &.{},
@@ -788,8 +785,10 @@ pub const GraphicsPipelineCreateInfo = struct {
     color_blend_state: ?PipelineColorBlendStateCreateInfo = null,
     dynamic_state: ?PipelineDynamicStateCreateInfo = null,
     layout: vk.PipelineLayout = .null_handle,
-    render_pass: vk.RenderPass = .null_handle,
-    subpass: u32,
+    view_mask: u32,
+    color_attachment_formats: []const vk.Format = &.{},
+    depth_attachment_format: vk.Format = .undefined,
+    stencil_attachment_format: vk.Format = .undefined,
     base_pipeline_handle: vk.Pipeline = .null_handle,
 };
 
@@ -805,6 +804,33 @@ pub const ImageCreateInfo = struct {
     usage: vk.ImageUsageFlags,
     queue_family_indices: []const u32 = &.{},
     initial_layout: vk.ImageLayout,
+
+    pub fn toVk(self: ImageCreateInfo) !vk.ImageCreateInfo {
+        const allocator_frame = ctx.allocator_frame;
+
+        var queue_family_indices_set: std.AutoArrayHashMapUnmanaged(u32, void) = .{};
+        for (self.queue_family_indices) |queue_family_index| {
+            try queue_family_indices_set.put(allocator_frame, queue_family_index, {});
+        }
+
+        const queue_family_indices = queue_family_indices_set.keys();
+
+        return .{
+            .flags = self.flags,
+            .image_type = self.image_type,
+            .format = self.format,
+            .extent = self.extent,
+            .mip_levels = self.mip_levels,
+            .array_layers = self.array_layers,
+            .samples = self.samples,
+            .tiling = self.tiling,
+            .usage = self.usage,
+            .sharing_mode = if (queue_family_indices.len > 1) .concurrent else .exclusive,
+            .queue_family_index_count = if (queue_family_indices.len > 1) @intCast(queue_family_indices.len) else 0,
+            .p_queue_family_indices = if (queue_family_indices.len > 1) queue_family_indices.ptr else null,
+            .initial_layout = self.initial_layout,
+        };
+    }
 };
 
 pub const ImageViewCreateInfo = struct {
@@ -979,13 +1005,11 @@ pub fn bindImageMemory(self: *Engine, image: vk.Image, memory: vk.DeviceMemory,
 }
 
 pub fn createBuffer(self: *Engine, create_info: BufferCreateInfo) !vk.Buffer {
-    var arena = self.makeArena();
-    defer arena.deinit();
-    const allocator = arena.allocator();
+    const allocator_frame = ctx.allocator_frame;
 
     var queue_family_indices_set: std.AutoArrayHashMapUnmanaged(u32, void) = .{};
     for (create_info.queue_family_indices) |queue_family_index| {
-        try queue_family_indices_set.put(allocator, queue_family_index, {});
+        try queue_family_indices_set.put(allocator_frame, queue_family_index, {});
     }
 
     const queue_family_indices = queue_family_indices_set.keys();
@@ -997,14 +1021,12 @@ pub fn createBuffer(self: *Engine, create_info: BufferCreateInfo) !vk.Buffer {
         .sharing_mode = if (queue_family_indices.len > 1) .concurrent else .exclusive,
         .queue_family_index_count = if (queue_family_indices.len > 1) @intCast(queue_family_indices.len) else 0,
         .p_queue_family_indices = if (queue_family_indices.len > 1) queue_family_indices.ptr else null,
-    }, &self.vk_allocator.interface);
+    }, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
     return buffer;
 }
 
 pub fn createDescriptorSetLayout(self: *Engine, create_info: DescriptorSetLayoutCreateInfo) !vk.DescriptorSetLayout {
-    var arena = self.makeArena();
-    defer arena.deinit();
-    const allocator = arena.allocator();
+    const allocator_frame = ctx.allocator_frame;
 
     const has_binding_flags = blk: {
         for (create_info.bindings) |binding| {
@@ -1018,7 +1040,7 @@ pub fn createDescriptorSetLayout(self: *Engine, create_info: DescriptorSetLayout
     var p_next: ?*const anyopaque = null;
 
     if (has_binding_flags) {
-        const descriptor_set_layout_bindings_flags = try allocator.alloc(vk.DescriptorBindingFlags, create_info.bindings.len);
+        const descriptor_set_layout_bindings_flags = try allocator_frame.alloc(vk.DescriptorBindingFlags, create_info.bindings.len);
         for (descriptor_set_layout_bindings_flags, create_info.bindings) |*x, binding| {
             x.* = binding.flags;
         }
@@ -1029,7 +1051,7 @@ pub fn createDescriptorSetLayout(self: *Engine, create_info: DescriptorSetLayout
         };
     }
 
-    const bindings = try allocator.alloc(vk.DescriptorSetLayoutBinding, create_info.bindings.len);
+    const bindings = try allocator_frame.alloc(vk.DescriptorSetLayoutBinding, create_info.bindings.len);
     for (bindings, create_info.bindings) |*x, binding| {
         x.* = .{
             .binding = binding.binding,
@@ -1045,7 +1067,7 @@ pub fn createDescriptorSetLayout(self: *Engine, create_info: DescriptorSetLayout
         .flags = create_info.flags,
         .binding_count = @intCast(bindings.len),
         .p_bindings = bindings.ptr,
-    }, &self.vk_allocator.interface);
+    }, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
     return descriptor_set_layout;
 }
 
@@ -1055,34 +1077,19 @@ pub fn createDescriptorPool(self: *Engine, create_info: DescriptorPoolCreateInfo
         .max_sets = create_info.max_sets,
         .pool_size_count = @intCast(create_info.pool_sizes.len),
         .p_pool_sizes = create_info.pool_sizes.ptr,
-    }, &self.vk_allocator.interface);
+    }, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
     return descriptor_pool;
 }
 
 pub fn createFence(self: *Engine, create_info: vk.FenceCreateInfo) !vk.Fence {
-    const fence = try self.device.createFence(&create_info, &self.vk_allocator.interface);
+    const fence = try self.device.createFence(&create_info, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
     return fence;
 }
 
-pub fn createFramebuffer(self: *Engine, create_info: FramebufferCreateInfo) !vk.Framebuffer {
-    const framebuffer = try self.device.createFramebuffer(&.{
-        .flags = create_info.flags,
-        .render_pass = create_info.render_pass,
-        .attachment_count = @intCast(create_info.attachments.len),
-        .p_attachments = create_info.attachments.ptr,
-        .width = create_info.width,
-        .height = create_info.height,
-        .layers = create_info.layers,
-    }, &self.vk_allocator.interface);
-    return framebuffer;
-}
-
 pub fn createGraphicsPipeline(self: *Engine, create_info: GraphicsPipelineCreateInfo) !vk.Pipeline {
-    var arena = self.makeArena();
-    defer arena.deinit();
-    const allocator = arena.allocator();
+    const allocator_frame = ctx.allocator_frame;
 
-    const stages = try allocator.alloc(vk.PipelineShaderStageCreateInfo, create_info.stages.len);
+    const stages = try allocator_frame.alloc(vk.PipelineShaderStageCreateInfo, create_info.stages.len);
     for (stages, create_info.stages) |*x, stage| {
         x.* = .{
             .flags = stage.flags,
@@ -1091,7 +1098,7 @@ pub fn createGraphicsPipeline(self: *Engine, create_info: GraphicsPipelineCreate
             .module = stage.module,
             .p_specialization_info = blk: {
                 if (stage.specialization_info) |y| {
-                    const specialization_info = try allocator.create(vk.SpecializationInfo);
+                    const specialization_info = try allocator_frame.create(vk.SpecializationInfo);
                     specialization_info.* = .{
                         .map_entry_count = @intCast(y.map_entries.len),
                         .p_map_entries = y.map_entries.ptr,
@@ -1106,8 +1113,17 @@ pub fn createGraphicsPipeline(self: *Engine, create_info: GraphicsPipelineCreate
         };
     }
 
+    const pipeline_rendering_create_info: vk.PipelineRenderingCreateInfo = .{
+        .view_mask = create_info.view_mask,
+        .color_attachment_count = @intCast(create_info.color_attachment_formats.len),
+        .p_color_attachment_formats = create_info.color_attachment_formats.ptr,
+        .depth_attachment_format = create_info.depth_attachment_format,
+        .stencil_attachment_format = create_info.stencil_attachment_format,
+    };
+
     const graphics_pipeline_create_infos = [_]vk.GraphicsPipelineCreateInfo{
         .{
+            .p_next = &pipeline_rendering_create_info,
             .flags = create_info.flags,
             .stage_count = @intCast(stages.len),
             .p_stages = stages.ptr,
@@ -1144,46 +1160,20 @@ pub fn createGraphicsPipeline(self: *Engine, create_info: GraphicsPipelineCreate
                 .p_dynamic_states = dynamic_state.dynamic_states.ptr,
             } else null,
             .layout = create_info.layout,
-            .render_pass = create_info.render_pass,
-            .subpass = create_info.subpass,
+            .subpass = 0,
             .base_pipeline_handle = create_info.base_pipeline_handle,
             .base_pipeline_index = -1,
         },
     };
 
     var pipelines: [1]vk.Pipeline = undefined;
-    _ = try self.device.createGraphicsPipelines(.null_handle, &graphics_pipeline_create_infos, &self.vk_allocator.interface, &pipelines);
+    _ = try self.device.createGraphicsPipelines(.null_handle, &graphics_pipeline_create_infos, ctx.vk_allocator.capture(), &pipelines);
     return pipelines[0];
 }
 
 pub fn createImage(self: *Engine, create_info: ImageCreateInfo) !vk.Image {
-    var arena = self.makeArena();
-    defer arena.deinit();
-    const allocator = arena.allocator();
-
-    var queue_family_indices_set: std.AutoArrayHashMapUnmanaged(u32, void) = .{};
-    for (create_info.queue_family_indices) |queue_family_index| {
-        try queue_family_indices_set.put(allocator, queue_family_index, {});
-    }
-
-    const queue_family_indices = queue_family_indices_set.keys();
-
-    const image = self.device.createImage(&.{
-        .flags = create_info.flags,
-        .image_type = create_info.image_type,
-        .format = create_info.format,
-        .extent = create_info.extent,
-        .mip_levels = create_info.mip_levels,
-        .array_layers = create_info.array_layers,
-        .samples = create_info.samples,
-        .tiling = create_info.tiling,
-        .usage = create_info.usage,
-        .sharing_mode = if (queue_family_indices.len > 1) .concurrent else .exclusive,
-        .queue_family_index_count = if (queue_family_indices.len > 1) @intCast(queue_family_indices.len) else 0,
-        .p_queue_family_indices = if (queue_family_indices.len > 1) queue_family_indices.ptr else null,
-        .initial_layout = create_info.initial_layout,
-    }, &self.vk_allocator.interface);
-    return image;
+    const create_info_vk = try create_info.toVk();
+    return self.device.createImage(&create_info_vk, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
 }
 
 pub fn createImageView(self: *Engine, create_info: ImageViewCreateInfo) !vk.ImageView {
@@ -1194,7 +1184,7 @@ pub fn createImageView(self: *Engine, create_info: ImageViewCreateInfo) !vk.Imag
         .format = create_info.format,
         .components = create_info.components,
         .subresource_range = create_info.subresource_range,
-    }, &self.vk_allocator.interface);
+    }, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
     return image_view;
 }
 
@@ -1205,50 +1195,17 @@ pub fn createPipelineLayout(self: *Engine, create_info: PipelineLayoutCreateInfo
         .p_set_layouts = create_info.set_layouts.ptr,
         .push_constant_range_count = @intCast(create_info.push_constant_ranges.len),
         .p_push_constant_ranges = create_info.push_constant_ranges.ptr,
-    }, &self.vk_allocator.interface);
+    }, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
     return pipeline_layout;
 }
 
-pub fn createRenderPass(self: *Engine, create_info: RenderPassCreateInfo) !vk.RenderPass {
-    var arena = self.makeArena();
-    defer arena.deinit();
-    const allocator = arena.allocator();
-
-    const subpasses = try allocator.alloc(vk.SubpassDescription, create_info.subpasses.len);
-    for (subpasses, create_info.subpasses) |*x, *subpass| {
-        x.* = .{
-            .flags = subpass.flags,
-            .pipeline_bind_point = subpass.pipeline_bind_point,
-            .input_attachment_count = @intCast(subpass.input_attachments.len),
-            .p_input_attachments = subpass.input_attachments.ptr,
-            .color_attachment_count = @intCast(subpass.color_attachments.len),
-            .p_color_attachments = subpass.color_attachments.ptr,
-            .p_resolve_attachments = if (subpass.resolve_attachments) |resolve_attachments| resolve_attachments.ptr else null,
-            .p_depth_stencil_attachment = if (subpass.depth_stencil_attachment) |*y| y else null,
-            .preserve_attachment_count = @intCast(subpass.preserve_attachments.len),
-            .p_preserve_attachments = subpass.preserve_attachments.ptr,
-        };
-    }
-
-    const render_pass = try self.device.createRenderPass(&.{
-        .flags = create_info.flags,
-        .attachment_count = @intCast(create_info.attachments.len),
-        .p_attachments = create_info.attachments.ptr,
-        .subpass_count = @intCast(subpasses.len),
-        .p_subpasses = subpasses.ptr,
-        .dependency_count = @intCast(create_info.dependencies.len),
-        .p_dependencies = create_info.dependencies.ptr,
-    }, &self.vk_allocator.interface);
-    return render_pass;
-}
-
 pub fn createSampler(self: *Engine, create_info: vk.SamplerCreateInfo) !vk.Sampler {
-    const sampler = try self.device.createSampler(&create_info, &self.vk_allocator.interface);
+    const sampler = try self.device.createSampler(&create_info, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
     return sampler;
 }
 
 pub fn createSemaphore(self: *Engine) !vk.Semaphore {
-    const semaphore = try self.device.createSemaphore(&.{}, &self.vk_allocator.interface);
+    const semaphore = try self.device.createSemaphore(&.{}, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
     return semaphore;
 }
 
@@ -1257,18 +1214,16 @@ pub fn createShaderModule(self: *Engine, create_info: ShaderModuleCreateInfo) !v
         .flags = create_info.flags,
         .code_size = create_info.code.len,
         .p_code = @ptrCast(create_info.code.ptr),
-    }, &self.vk_allocator.interface);
+    }, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
     return shader_module;
 }
 
 pub fn createSwapchain(self: *Engine, create_info: SwapchainCreateInfo) !vk.SwapchainKHR {
-    var arena = self.makeArena();
-    defer arena.deinit();
-    const allocator = arena.allocator();
+    const allocator_frame = ctx.allocator_frame;
 
     var queue_family_indices_set: std.AutoArrayHashMapUnmanaged(u32, void) = .{};
     for (create_info.queue_family_indices) |queue_family_index| {
-        try queue_family_indices_set.put(allocator, queue_family_index, {});
+        try queue_family_indices_set.put(allocator_frame, queue_family_index, {});
     }
 
     const queue_family_indices = queue_family_indices_set.keys();
@@ -1290,64 +1245,56 @@ pub fn createSwapchain(self: *Engine, create_info: SwapchainCreateInfo) !vk.Swap
         .present_mode = create_info.present_mode,
         .clipped = create_info.clipped,
         .old_swapchain = create_info.old_swapchain,
-    }, &self.vk_allocator.interface);
+    }, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
     return swapchain;
 }
 
 pub fn destroyBuffer(self: *Engine, buffer: vk.Buffer) void {
-    self.device.destroyBuffer(buffer, &self.vk_allocator.interface);
+    self.device.destroyBuffer(buffer, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
 }
 
 pub fn destroyDescriptorPool(self: *Engine, descriptor_pool: vk.DescriptorPool) void {
-    self.device.destroyDescriptorPool(descriptor_pool, &self.vk_allocator.interface);
+    self.device.destroyDescriptorPool(descriptor_pool, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
 }
 
 pub fn destroyDescriptorSetLayout(self: *Engine, descriptor_set_layout: vk.DescriptorSetLayout) void {
-    self.device.destroyDescriptorSetLayout(descriptor_set_layout, &self.vk_allocator.interface);
+    self.device.destroyDescriptorSetLayout(descriptor_set_layout, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
 }
 
 pub fn destroyFence(self: *Engine, fence: vk.Fence) void {
-    self.device.destroyFence(fence, &self.vk_allocator.interface);
-}
-
-pub fn destroyFramebuffer(self: *Engine, framebuffer: vk.Framebuffer) void {
-    self.device.destroyFramebuffer(framebuffer, &self.vk_allocator.interface);
+    self.device.destroyFence(fence, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
 }
 
 pub fn destroyImage(self: *Engine, image: vk.Image) void {
-    self.device.destroyImage(image, &self.vk_allocator.interface);
+    self.device.destroyImage(image, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
 }
 
 pub fn destroyImageView(self: *Engine, image_view: vk.ImageView) void {
-    self.device.destroyImageView(image_view, &self.vk_allocator.interface);
+    self.device.destroyImageView(image_view, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
 }
 
 pub fn destroyPipeline(self: *Engine, pipeline: vk.Pipeline) void {
-    self.device.destroyPipeline(pipeline, &self.vk_allocator.interface);
+    self.device.destroyPipeline(pipeline, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
 }
 
 pub fn destroyPipelineLayout(self: *Engine, pipeline_layout: vk.PipelineLayout) void {
-    self.device.destroyPipelineLayout(pipeline_layout, &self.vk_allocator.interface);
-}
-
-pub fn destroyRenderPass(self: *Engine, render_pass: vk.RenderPass) void {
-    self.device.destroyRenderPass(render_pass, &self.vk_allocator.interface);
+    self.device.destroyPipelineLayout(pipeline_layout, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
 }
 
 pub fn destroySampler(self: *Engine, sampler: vk.Sampler) void {
-    self.device.destroySampler(sampler, &self.vk_allocator.interface);
+    self.device.destroySampler(sampler, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
 }
 
 pub fn destroySemaphore(self: *Engine, semaphore: vk.Semaphore) void {
-    self.device.destroySemaphore(semaphore, &self.vk_allocator.interface);
+    self.device.destroySemaphore(semaphore, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
 }
 
 pub fn destroyShaderModule(self: *Engine, shader_module: vk.ShaderModule) void {
-    self.device.destroyShaderModule(shader_module, &self.vk_allocator.interface);
+    self.device.destroyShaderModule(shader_module, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
 }
 
 pub fn destroySwapchain(self: *Engine, swapchain: vk.SwapchainKHR) void {
-    self.device.destroySwapchainKHR(swapchain, &self.vk_allocator.interface);
+    self.device.destroySwapchainKHR(swapchain, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
 }
 
 pub fn deviceWaitIdle(self: *Engine) !void {
@@ -1366,7 +1313,7 @@ pub fn freeDescriptorSet(self: *Engine, descriptor_pool: vk.DescriptorPool, desc
 }
 
 pub fn freeMemory(self: *Engine, device_memory: vk.DeviceMemory) void {
-    self.device.freeMemory(device_memory, &self.vk_allocator.interface);
+    self.device.freeMemory(device_memory, ctx.vk_allocator.capture());
 }
 
 pub fn getBufferMemoryRequirements(self: *Engine, buffer: vk.Buffer) vk.MemoryRequirements {
@@ -1378,12 +1325,12 @@ pub fn getImageMemoryRequirements(self: *Engine, image: vk.Image) vk.MemoryRequi
 }
 
 pub fn getPhysicalDeviceSurfaceCapabilities(self: *Engine) !vk.SurfaceCapabilitiesKHR {
-    const surface_capabilities = try self.instance.getPhysicalDeviceSurfaceCapabilitiesKHR(self.physical_device, self.mode.surface.surface);
+    const surface_capabilities = try self.instance.getPhysicalDeviceSurfaceCapabilitiesKHR(self.physical_device, self.surface);
     return surface_capabilities;
 }
 
 pub fn getPhysicalDeviceSurfaceFormatsAlloc(self: *Engine, allocator: std.mem.Allocator) ![]vk.SurfaceFormatKHR {
-    const surface_formats = try self.instance.getPhysicalDeviceSurfaceFormatsAllocKHR(self.physical_device, self.mode.surface.surface, allocator);
+    const surface_formats = try self.instance.getPhysicalDeviceSurfaceFormatsAllocKHR(self.physical_device, self.surface, allocator);
     return surface_formats;
 }
 
@@ -1407,11 +1354,9 @@ pub fn unmapMemory(self: *Engine, memory: vk.DeviceMemory) void {
 }
 
 pub fn updateDescriptorSets(self: *Engine, update_info: DescriptorSetsUpdateInfo) !void {
-    var arena = self.makeArena();
-    defer arena.deinit();
-    const allocator = arena.allocator();
+    const allocator_frame = ctx.allocator_frame;
 
-    const descriptor_writes = try allocator.alloc(vk.WriteDescriptorSet, update_info.writes.len);
+    const descriptor_writes = try allocator_frame.alloc(vk.WriteDescriptorSet, update_info.writes.len);
     for (descriptor_writes, update_info.writes) |*x, write| {
         x.* = switch (write.descriptor_infos) {
             .image => |y| .{

src/engine/GenericBuffer.zig

@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 const std = @import("std");
 
+const ctx = @import("../AppContext.zig");
 const vk = @import("vulkan");
 
 const CommandBuffer = @import("CommandBuffer.zig");
@@ -51,7 +52,9 @@ pub fn GenericBuffer(comptime Header: type, comptime Element: type) type {
             elements: []const Element = &.{},
         };
 
-        pub fn init(engine: *Engine, init_info: InitInfo) !Self {
+        pub fn init(init_info: InitInfo) !Self {
+            const engine = ctx.engine;
+
             const array_size = try std.math.mul(u32, init_info.array_capacity, element_size);
             const size = try std.math.add(u32, array_offset, array_size);
 
@@ -88,8 +91,10 @@ pub fn GenericBuffer(comptime Header: type, comptime Element: type) type {
             };
         }
 
-        pub fn deinit(self: *Self, engine: *Engine) void {
-            std.log.scoped(.deinit).debug("Deinitializing {*} with {*}", .{ self, engine });
+        pub fn deinit(self: *Self) void {
+            const engine = ctx.engine;
+
+            std.log.scoped(.deinit).debug("Deinitializing {*}", .{self});
 
             engine.freeMemory(self.device_memory);
             engine.destroyBuffer(self.buffer);
@@ -97,7 +102,9 @@ pub fn GenericBuffer(comptime Header: type, comptime Element: type) type {
             self.* = undefined;
         }
 
-        pub fn write(self: Self, engine: *Engine, write_info: WriteInfo) !void {
+        pub fn write(self: Self, write_info: WriteInfo) !void {
+            const engine = ctx.engine;
+
             const element_count = std.math.cast(u32, write_info.elements.len) orelse return error.Overflow;
             std.debug.assert(write_info.element_offset + element_count <= self.array_capacity);
 
@@ -141,21 +148,21 @@ pub fn GenericBuffer(comptime Header: type, comptime Element: type) type {
                 std.debug.assert(regions.items.len > 0);
             }
 
-            var staging_buffer: StagingBuffer = try .init(engine, .{
+            var staging_buffer: StagingBuffer = try .init(.{
                 .target_queue = self.target_queue,
                 .capacity = write_size,
             });
-            defer staging_buffer.deinit(engine);
+            defer staging_buffer.deinit();
 
-            const staging_memory = try staging_buffer.map(engine);
+            const staging_memory = try staging_buffer.map();
             if (write_info.header) |header| {
                 @memcpy(staging_memory[0..header_size], std.mem.asBytes(&header));
             }
             @memcpy(staging_memory[array_write_offset..write_size], std.mem.sliceAsBytes(write_info.elements));
-            staging_buffer.unmap(engine);
+            staging_buffer.unmap();
 
-            var command_buffer: CommandBuffer = try .init(engine, .transfer);
-            defer command_buffer.deinit(engine);
+            var command_buffer: CommandBuffer = try .init(.transfer);
+            defer command_buffer.deinit();
 
             try command_buffer.beginCommandBuffer();
             command_buffer.copyBuffer(staging_buffer.buffer, self.buffer, regions.items);
@@ -164,11 +171,13 @@ pub fn GenericBuffer(comptime Header: type, comptime Element: type) type {
             const fence = try engine.createFence(.{});
             defer engine.destroyFence(fence);
 
-            try command_buffer.submit(engine, .{ .fence = fence });
+            try command_buffer.submit(.{ .fence = fence });
             try engine.waitForFence(fence);
         }
 
-        pub fn writeRaw(self: Self, engine: *Engine, data_offset: u32, data: []const u8) !void {
+        pub fn writeRaw(self: Self, data_offset: u32, data: []const u8) !void {
+            const engine = ctx.engine;
+
             const array_size = self.array_capacity * element_size;
             const size = array_offset + array_size;
 

src/engine/Gui.zig

@@ -1,15 +1,17 @@
 const Gui = @This();
 const std = @import("std");
 
-const shaders = @import("shaders.zig");
+const ctx = @import("../AppContext.zig");
+const shaders = @import("../shaders.zig");
 const vk = @import("vulkan");
 const vm = @import("vecmath");
 
-const CommandBuffer = @import("engine/CommandBuffer.zig");
-const Engine = @import("engine/Engine.zig");
-const GenericBuffer = @import("engine/GenericBuffer.zig").GenericBuffer;
-const Swapchain = @import("engine/Swapchain.zig");
-const Textures = @import("assets/Textures.zig");
+const CommandBuffer = @import("CommandBuffer.zig");
+const Engine = @import("Engine.zig");
+const GenericBuffer = @import("GenericBuffer.zig").GenericBuffer;
+const Swapchain = @import("Swapchain.zig");
+const Texture = @import("Texture.zig");
+const Textures = @import("Textures.zig");
 
 pub const Draw = struct {
     pub const Box = extern struct {
@@ -72,47 +74,41 @@ pub const max_text_draws = 4096;
 
 pub const max_batches = 1024;
 
-pub fn init(
-    allocator: std.mem.Allocator,
-    engine: *Engine,
-    global_uniforms_buffer: vk.Buffer,
-    render_pass: vk.RenderPass,
-) !Gui {
-    var box_gpu_buffer: GenericBuffer(void, Draw.Box) = try .init(engine, .{
+pub fn init() !*Gui {
+    const allocator_persistent = ctx.allocator_persistent;
+    const engine = ctx.engine;
+    const swapchain = ctx.swapchain;
+
+    const gui = try allocator_persistent.create(Gui);
+
+    var box_gpu_buffer: GenericBuffer(void, Draw.Box) = try .init(.{
         .usage = .storage,
         .target_queue = .graphics,
         .array_capacity = max_box_draws,
         .name = "GUI box draws",
     });
-    errdefer box_gpu_buffer.deinit(engine);
+    errdefer box_gpu_buffer.deinit();
 
-    var text_gpu_buffer: GenericBuffer(void, Draw.Text) = try .init(engine, .{
+    var text_gpu_buffer: GenericBuffer(void, Draw.Text) = try .init(.{
         .usage = .storage,
         .target_queue = .graphics,
         .array_capacity = max_text_draws,
         .name = "GUI text draws",
     });
-    errdefer text_gpu_buffer.deinit(engine);
+    errdefer text_gpu_buffer.deinit();
 
-    var image_gpu_buffer: GenericBuffer(void, Draw.Image) = try .init(engine, .{
+    var image_gpu_buffer: GenericBuffer(void, Draw.Image) = try .init(.{
         .usage = .storage,
         .target_queue = .graphics,
         .array_capacity = max_image_draws,
         .name = "GUI image draws",
     });
-    errdefer image_gpu_buffer.deinit(engine);
+    errdefer image_gpu_buffer.deinit();
 
-    var box_cpu_buffer: std.ArrayList(Draw.Box) = try .initCapacity(allocator, max_box_draws);
-    errdefer box_cpu_buffer.deinit(allocator);
-
-    var text_cpu_buffer: std.ArrayList(Draw.Text) = try .initCapacity(allocator, max_text_draws);
-    errdefer text_cpu_buffer.deinit(allocator);
-
-    var image_cpu_buffer: std.ArrayList(Draw.Image) = try .initCapacity(allocator, max_image_draws);
-    errdefer image_cpu_buffer.deinit(allocator);
-
-    var batches: std.ArrayList(Batch) = try .initCapacity(allocator, max_batches);
-    errdefer batches.deinit(allocator);
+    const box_cpu_buffer: std.ArrayList(Draw.Box) = try .initCapacity(allocator_persistent, max_box_draws);
+    const text_cpu_buffer: std.ArrayList(Draw.Text) = try .initCapacity(allocator_persistent, max_text_draws);
+    const image_cpu_buffer: std.ArrayList(Draw.Image) = try .initCapacity(allocator_persistent, max_image_draws);
+    const batches: std.ArrayList(Batch) = try .initCapacity(allocator_persistent, max_batches);
 
     const sampler = try engine.createSampler(.{
         .mag_filter = .linear,
@@ -168,14 +164,14 @@ pub fn init(
     defer engine.destroyShaderModule(box_fragment_shader);
     engine.setObjectName(box_fragment_shader, "SM gui_box_frag", .{});
 
-    var index_buffer = try shaders.IndexBuffer.init(engine, .{
+    var index_buffer = try shaders.IndexBuffer.init(.{
         .usage = .index,
         .target_queue = .graphics,
         .array_capacity = 6,
         .name = "QuadIB",
     });
-    errdefer index_buffer.deinit(engine);
-    try index_buffer.write(engine, .{
+    errdefer index_buffer.deinit();
+    try index_buffer.write(.{
         .elements = &.{ 0, 1, 2, 2, 1, 3 },
     });
 
@@ -220,6 +216,33 @@ pub fn init(
             .alpha_to_coverage_enable = .false,
             .alpha_to_one_enable = .false,
         },
+        .depth_stencil_state = .{
+            .depth_test_enable = .false,
+            .depth_write_enable = .false,
+            .depth_compare_op = .always,
+            .depth_bounds_test_enable = .false,
+            .stencil_test_enable = .false,
+            .front = .{
+                .fail_op = .keep,
+                .pass_op = .keep,
+                .depth_fail_op = .keep,
+                .compare_op = .never,
+                .compare_mask = 0,
+                .write_mask = 0,
+                .reference = 0,
+            },
+            .back = .{
+                .fail_op = .keep,
+                .pass_op = .keep,
+                .depth_fail_op = .keep,
+                .compare_op = .never,
+                .compare_mask = 0,
+                .write_mask = 0,
+                .reference = 0,
+            },
+            .min_depth_bounds = 0,
+            .max_depth_bounds = 1,
+        },
         .color_blend_state = .{
             .logic_op_enable = .false,
             .logic_op = .copy,
@@ -246,8 +269,10 @@ pub fn init(
             .dynamic_states = &.{ .viewport, .scissor },
         },
         .layout = box_pipeline_layout,
-        .render_pass = render_pass,
-        .subpass = 1,
+        .view_mask = 0,
+        .color_attachment_formats = &.{swapchain.params.surface_format.format},
+        .depth_attachment_format = Texture.Usage.depth.vkFormat(),
+        .stencil_attachment_format = .undefined,
     });
     errdefer engine.destroyPipeline(box_pipeline);
     engine.setObjectName(box_pipeline, "P GUI Box", .{});
@@ -276,21 +301,6 @@ pub fn init(
 
     try engine.updateDescriptorSets(.{
         .writes = &.{
-            .{
-                .dst_set = box_descriptor_set,
-                .dst_binding = 0,
-                .dst_array_element = 0,
-                .descriptor_type = .uniform_buffer,
-                .descriptor_infos = .{
-                    .buffer = &.{
-                        .{
-                            .buffer = global_uniforms_buffer,
-                            .offset = 0,
-                            .range = vk.WHOLE_SIZE,
-                        },
-                    },
-                },
-            },
             .{
                 .dst_set = box_descriptor_set,
                 .dst_binding = 1,
@@ -309,7 +319,7 @@ pub fn init(
         },
     });
 
-    return .{
+    gui.* = .{
         .box_gpu_buffer = box_gpu_buffer,
         .text_gpu_buffer = text_gpu_buffer,
         .image_gpu_buffer = image_gpu_buffer,
@@ -330,27 +340,25 @@ pub fn init(
         .descriptor_pool = descriptor_pool,
         .box_descriptor_set = box_descriptor_set,
     };
+
+    return gui;
 }
 
-pub fn deinit(self: *Gui, engine: *Engine, allocator: std.mem.Allocator) void {
-    std.log.scoped(.deinit).debug("Deinitializing {*} with {*} and Allocator{{{*},{*}}}", .{ self, engine, allocator.ptr, allocator.vtable });
+pub fn deinit(self: *Gui) void {
+    const engine = ctx.engine;
+
+    std.log.scoped(.deinit).debug("Deinitializing {*}", .{self});
 
     engine.destroyDescriptorPool(self.descriptor_pool);
     engine.destroyPipeline(self.box_pipeline);
-    self.index_buffer.deinit(engine);
+    self.index_buffer.deinit();
     engine.destroyPipelineLayout(self.box_pipeline_layout);
     engine.destroyDescriptorSetLayout(self.box_descriptor_set_layout);
     engine.destroySampler(self.sampler);
 
-    self.batches.deinit(allocator);
-
-    self.image_cpu_buffer.deinit(allocator);
-    self.text_cpu_buffer.deinit(allocator);
-    self.box_cpu_buffer.deinit(allocator);
-
-    self.image_gpu_buffer.deinit(engine);
-    self.text_gpu_buffer.deinit(engine);
-    self.box_gpu_buffer.deinit(engine);
+    self.image_gpu_buffer.deinit();
+    self.text_gpu_buffer.deinit();
+    self.box_gpu_buffer.deinit();
 
     self.* = undefined;
 }
@@ -395,12 +403,12 @@ fn extendOrAddBatch(self: *Gui, draw_type: std.meta.DeclEnum(Draw), instance: u3
     }
 }
 
-pub fn draw(self: *const Gui, engine: *Engine, command_buffer: CommandBuffer) !void {
+pub fn draw(self: *const Gui, command_buffer: CommandBuffer) !void {
     command_buffer.bindIndexBuffer(self.index_buffer.buffer, 0, .uint16);
 
-    try self.box_gpu_buffer.write(engine, .{ .elements = self.box_cpu_buffer.items });
-    try self.text_gpu_buffer.write(engine, .{ .elements = self.text_cpu_buffer.items });
-    try self.image_gpu_buffer.write(engine, .{ .elements = self.image_cpu_buffer.items });
+    try self.box_gpu_buffer.write(.{ .elements = self.box_cpu_buffer.items });
+    try self.text_gpu_buffer.write(.{ .elements = self.text_cpu_buffer.items });
+    try self.image_gpu_buffer.write(.{ .elements = self.image_cpu_buffer.items });
 
     for (self.batches.items) |batch| {
         switch (batch.draw_type) {

src/engine/Materials.zig

@@ -1,8 +1,14 @@
-//! Module for loading persistent materials.
+//! Module for loading persistent materials, which are all stored in a single
+//! storage buffer in VRAM.
+//!
+//! This module is intended to be initialized once and to persist until the end
+//! of the whole program's runtime. Trying to use it in any other way will
+//! result in weird behavior.
 
 const Materials = @This();
 const std = @import("std");
 
+const ctx = @import("../AppContext.zig");
 const media = @import("media");
 const shaders = @import("../shaders.zig");
 const vk = @import("vulkan");
@@ -12,11 +18,13 @@ const Engine = @import("../engine/Engine.zig");
 const Textures = @import("Textures.zig");
 
 pub const Id = enum(u16) {
-    // VOLATILE Synchronize explicit values with `init` implementation.
+    // VOLATILE When modifying the list of explicitly defined material IDs (i.e.
+    // any explicit enum value), we need to update `Materials.init`
+    // implementation.
 
     /// A material ID that can be used as a "null" material. An object with this
-    /// material ID must not be rendered. If this ID is rendered, an "error"
-    /// replacement material will be used.
+    /// material ID must not be rendered. If this material is rendered anyway,
+    /// an appropriate "error"-looking material will be used.
     empty,
     _,
 
@@ -50,7 +58,7 @@ pub const Key = struct {
     filename: Atom,
 };
 
-/// Maps a key value to a material ID.
+/// Maps a key value to a material ID. Preallocated with `allocator_persistent`.
 map: std.AutoHashMapUnmanaged(Key, Id),
 /// Stores all material data in a single contiguous storage buffer. Use the
 /// material ID as an index into this buffer.
@@ -62,22 +70,30 @@ material_count: usize,
 /// storage buffer should take 208 kiB in VRAM.
 pub const max_materials = 4096;
 
-pub fn init(engine: *Engine, allocator: std.mem.Allocator) !Materials {
-    var map: std.AutoHashMapUnmanaged(Key, Id) = .empty;
-    errdefer map.deinit(allocator);
-    try map.ensureTotalCapacity(allocator, max_materials);
+pub fn init() !*Materials {
+    const allocator_persistent = ctx.allocator_persistent;
 
-    var material_buffer = try shaders.MaterialBuffer.init(engine, .{
+    const materials = try allocator_persistent.create(Materials);
+
+    materials.* = .{
+        .map = .empty,
+        .material_buffer = undefined,
+        .material_count = 0,
+    };
+
+    try materials.map.ensureTotalCapacity(allocator_persistent, max_materials);
+
+    materials.material_buffer = try .init(.{
         .usage = .storage,
         .target_queue = .graphics,
         .array_capacity = max_materials,
         .name = "Materials",
     });
-    errdefer material_buffer.deinit(engine);
+    errdefer materials.material_buffer.deinit();
 
     // VOLATILE Synchronize with explicit values on top of `Id` type.
 
-    try material_buffer.write(engine, .{
+    try materials.material_buffer.write(.{
         .element_offset = Id.empty.toInt(),
         .elements = &.{
             .{
@@ -95,19 +111,16 @@ pub fn init(engine: *Engine, allocator: std.mem.Allocator) !Materials {
             },
         },
     });
+    materials.material_count += 1;
 
-    return .{
-        .map = map,
-        .material_buffer = material_buffer,
-        .material_count = @typeInfo(Id).@"enum".fields.len,
-    };
+    std.debug.assert(materials.material_count == @typeInfo(Id).@"enum".fields.len);
+    return materials;
 }
 
-pub fn deinit(self: *Materials, engine: *Engine, allocator: std.mem.Allocator) void {
-    std.log.scoped(.deinit).debug("Deinitializing {*} with {*} and Allocator{{{*},{*}}}", .{ self, engine, allocator.ptr, allocator.vtable });
+pub fn deinit(self: *Materials) void {
+    std.log.scoped(.deinit).debug("Deinitializing {*}", .{self});
 
-    self.material_buffer.deinit(engine);
-    self.map.deinit(allocator);
+    self.material_buffer.deinit();
     self.* = undefined;
 }
 
@@ -149,20 +162,12 @@ pub fn getAtom(self: *const Materials, filename: Atom) ?Id {
 /// deinitialized or reset after this function returns. Note that during loading
 /// the engine will make its own persistent allocations, so an out of memory
 /// error is not necessarily related to `temp_allocator`.
-pub fn getOrLoad(
-    self: *Materials,
-    engine: *Engine,
-    textures: *Textures,
-    stbi: *media.stbi,
-    maybe_filename: ?[]const u8,
-    temp_allocator: std.mem.Allocator,
-    io: std.Io,
-) !Id {
+pub fn getOrLoad(self: *Materials, maybe_filename: ?[]const u8) !Id {
     if (maybe_filename) |filename| {
         const key: Key = .{
             // If the material already exists, then the atom must exist and the
             // following line will not return any error.
-            .filename = try .fromString(filename, io),
+            .filename = try .fromString(filename),
         };
 
         // We don't use `getOrPutAssumeCapacity` method, because we might already be
@@ -174,7 +179,7 @@ pub fn getOrLoad(
             const id = Id.fromIndexSafe(self.material_count) catch |err| switch (err) {
                 error.Overflow => return error.OutOfMaterials,
             };
-            try self.loadMaterial(engine, textures, stbi, filename, id.toInt(), temp_allocator, io);
+            try self.loadMaterial(filename, id.toInt());
 
             self.map.putAssumeCapacityNoClobber(key, id);
             self.material_count += 1;
@@ -197,15 +202,7 @@ pub fn getOrLoad(
 /// deinitialized or reset after this function returns. Note that during loading
 /// the engine will make its own persistent allocations, so an out of memory
 /// error is not necessarily related to `temp_allocator`.
-pub fn getOrLoadAtom(
-    self: *Materials,
-    engine: *Engine,
-    textures: *Textures,
-    stbi: *media.stbi,
-    filename: Atom,
-    temp_allocator: std.mem.Allocator,
-    io: std.Io,
-) !Id {
+pub fn getOrLoadAtom(self: *Materials, filename: Atom) !Id {
     if (filename != .empty) {
         const key: Key = .{
             .filename = filename,
@@ -220,7 +217,7 @@ pub fn getOrLoadAtom(
             const id = Id.fromIndexSafe(self.material_count) catch |err| switch (err) {
                 error.Overflow => return error.OutOfMaterials,
             };
-            try self.loadMaterial(engine, textures, stbi, filename.toString(), id.toInt(), temp_allocator, io);
+            try self.loadMaterial(filename.toString(), id.toInt());
 
             self.map.putAssumeCapacityNoClobber(key, id);
             self.material_count += 1;
@@ -242,14 +239,16 @@ pub fn getOrLoadAtom(
 /// deinitialized or reset after this function returns. Note that during loading
 /// the engine will make its own persistent allocations, so an out of memory
 /// error is not necessarily related to `temp_allocator`.
-pub fn loadAll(self: *Materials, engine: *Engine, textures: *Textures, stbi: *media.stbi, temp_allocator: std.mem.Allocator) void {
-    const cwd = std.fs.cwd();
+pub fn loadAll(self: *Materials) void {
+    const io = ctx.io;
 
-    var dir = cwd.openDir("assets/materials", .{ .iterate = true }) catch |err| {
+    const cwd = std.Io.Dir.cwd();
+
+    var dir = cwd.openDir(io, "assets/materials", .{ .iterate = true }) catch |err| {
         std.log.err("Error while opening metarials directory: {s}", .{@errorName(err)});
         return;
     };
-    defer dir.close();
+    defer dir.close(io);
 
     var it = dir.iterate();
     while (it.next() catch |err| {
@@ -261,13 +260,17 @@ pub fn loadAll(self: *Materials, engine: *Engine, textures: *Textures, stbi: *me
             continue;
         }
 
-        _ = self.getOrLoad(engine, textures, stbi, entry.name, temp_allocator) catch |err| {
+        _ = self.getOrLoad(entry.name) catch |err| {
             std.log.err("Error while loading material entry {s}: {s}", .{ entry.name, @errorName(err) });
         };
     }
 }
 
-fn loadMaterial(self: *Materials, engine: *Engine, textures: *Textures, stbi: *media.stbi, filename: []const u8, index: u32, temp_allocator: std.mem.Allocator, io: std.Io) !void {
+fn loadMaterial(self: *Materials, filename: []const u8, index: u32) !void {
+    const allocator_frame = ctx.allocator_frame;
+    const io = ctx.io;
+    const textures = ctx.textures;
+
     const MaterialJson = struct {
         baseColor: [3]f32 = .{ 1, 1, 1 },
         baseColorTexture: ?[]const u8 = null,
@@ -296,19 +299,15 @@ fn loadMaterial(self: *Materials, engine: *Engine, textures: *Textures, stbi: *m
     defer file.close(io);
 
     var file_reader = file.reader(io, &buffer);
-    var json_reader = std.json.Reader.init(temp_allocator, &file_reader.interface);
-    defer json_reader.deinit();
+    var json_reader = std.json.Reader.init(allocator_frame, &file_reader.interface);
 
-    const parsed: std.json.Parsed(MaterialJson) = try std.json.parseFromTokenSource(MaterialJson, temp_allocator, &json_reader, .{
+    const material_json = try std.json.parseFromTokenSourceLeaky(MaterialJson, allocator_frame, &json_reader, .{
         .duplicate_field_behavior = .@"error",
         .ignore_unknown_fields = false,
         .allocate = .alloc_if_needed,
     });
-    defer parsed.deinit();
 
-    const material_json = parsed.value;
-
-    try self.material_buffer.write(engine, .{
+    try self.material_buffer.write(.{
         .element_offset = index,
         .elements = &.{
             .{
@@ -319,10 +318,10 @@ fn loadMaterial(self: *Materials, engine: *Engine, textures: *Textures, stbi: *m
                 .normal_scale = material_json.normalScale,
                 .occlusion_texture_strength = material_json.occlusionTextureStrength,
                 .roughness = material_json.roughness,
-                .base_color_texture = try textures.getOrLoad(engine, stbi, material_json.baseColorTexture, .base_color, io),
-                .emissive_texture = try textures.getOrLoad(engine, stbi, material_json.emissiveTexture, .emissive, io),
-                .normal_texture = try textures.getOrLoad(engine, stbi, material_json.normalTexture, .normal, io),
-                .occlusion_roughness_metallic_texture = try textures.getOrLoad(engine, stbi, material_json.occlusionRoughnessMetallicTexture, .occlusion_roughness_metallic, io),
+                .base_color_texture = try textures.getOrLoad(material_json.baseColorTexture, .base_color),
+                .emissive_texture = try textures.getOrLoad(material_json.emissiveTexture, .emissive),
+                .normal_texture = try textures.getOrLoad(material_json.normalTexture, .normal),
+                .occlusion_roughness_metallic_texture = try textures.getOrLoad(material_json.occlusionRoughnessMetallicTexture, .occlusion_roughness_metallic),
             },
         },
     });

src/engine/QueueSharingMode.zig

@@ -1,20 +0,0 @@
-const QueueSharingMode = @This();
-
-const vk = @import("vulkan");
-
-threadlocal var qsm: QueueSharingMode = undefined;
-
-buffer: [2]u32,
-sharing_mode: vk.SharingMode,
-queue_family_index_count: u32,
-p_queue_family_indices: ?[*]const u32,
-
-pub fn resolve(a: u32, b: u32) *const QueueSharingMode {
-    const self = &qsm;
-    const same = a == b;
-    self.buffer = .{ a, b };
-    self.sharing_mode = if (same) .exclusive else .concurrent;
-    self.queue_family_index_count = if (same) 0 else 2;
-    self.p_queue_family_indices = if (same) null else &self.buffer;
-    return self;
-}

src/engine/Skybox.zig

@@ -1,6 +1,7 @@
 const Skybox = @This();
 const std = @import("std");
 
+const ctx = @import("../AppContext.zig");
 const media = @import("media");
 const shaders = @import("../shaders.zig");
 const vk = @import("vulkan");
@@ -10,6 +11,8 @@ const CommandBuffer = @import("CommandBuffer.zig");
 const Engine = @import("Engine.zig");
 const GenericBuffer = @import("GenericBuffer.zig").GenericBuffer;
 const StagingBuffer = @import("StagingBuffer.zig");
+const Swapchain = @import("Swapchain.zig");
+const Texture = @import("Texture.zig");
 
 image: vk.Image,
 image_view: vk.ImageView,
@@ -27,14 +30,15 @@ pipeline: vk.Pipeline,
 
 pub fn load(
     filename: []const u8,
-    engine: *Engine,
-    stbi: *media.stbi,
     cube_size: u32,
     global_uniforms_buffer: vk.Buffer,
-    render_pass: vk.RenderPass,
-    temp_allocator: std.mem.Allocator,
-    io: std.Io,
 ) !Skybox {
+    const allocator_frame = ctx.allocator_frame;
+    const io = ctx.io;
+    const stbi = ctx.stbi;
+    const engine = ctx.engine;
+    const swapchain = ctx.swapchain;
+
     std.log.debug("Loading skybox \"{s}\"...", .{filename});
 
     // --- LOAD IMAGE FROM MEMORY ----------------------------------------------
@@ -44,8 +48,7 @@ pub fn load(
     var dir = try cwd.openDir(io, "assets", .{});
     defer dir.close(io);
 
-    const file_buf = try dir.readFileAlloc(io, filename, temp_allocator, .unlimited);
-    defer temp_allocator.free(file_buf);
+    const file_buf = try dir.readFileAlloc(io, filename, allocator_frame, .unlimited);
 
     const img = try stbi.loadHdrBuf(file_buf);
     defer stbi.freeHdr(img);
@@ -66,15 +69,15 @@ pub fn load(
 
     // --- LOAD IMAGE INTO STAGING BUFFER --------------------------------------
 
-    var staging_buffer = try StagingBuffer.init(engine, .{
+    var staging_buffer = try StagingBuffer.init(.{
         .capacity = @intCast(img.width * img.height * @sizeOf(vm.ColorHdr)),
         .target_queue = .compute,
     });
-    defer staging_buffer.deinit(engine);
+    defer staging_buffer.deinit();
 
-    const staging_memory = try staging_buffer.map(engine);
+    const staging_memory = try staging_buffer.map();
     @memcpy(staging_memory, @as([*]const u8, @ptrCast(img.data)));
-    staging_buffer.unmap(engine);
+    staging_buffer.unmap();
 
     // --- CREATE EQUIRECTANGULAR IMAGE ----------------------------------------
 
@@ -124,8 +127,8 @@ pub fn load(
 
     // --- TRANSITION TO TRANSFER_DST_OPTIMAL AND COPY -------------------------
 
-    var transfer_command_buffer = try CommandBuffer.init(engine, .transfer);
-    defer transfer_command_buffer.deinit(engine);
+    var transfer_command_buffer = try CommandBuffer.init(.transfer);
+    defer transfer_command_buffer.deinit();
 
     try transfer_command_buffer.beginCommandBuffer();
     transfer_command_buffer.pipelineBarrier(.{
@@ -172,14 +175,14 @@ pub fn load(
     );
     try transfer_command_buffer.endCommandBuffer();
 
-    try transfer_command_buffer.submit(engine, .{
+    try transfer_command_buffer.submit(.{
         .signal_semaphores = &.{semaphore_transfer_transition},
     });
 
     // --- TRANSITION TO SHADER_READ_ONLY_OPTIMAL ------------------------------
 
-    var transition1_command_buffer = try CommandBuffer.init(engine, .compute);
-    defer transition1_command_buffer.deinit(engine);
+    var transition1_command_buffer = try CommandBuffer.init(.compute);
+    defer transition1_command_buffer.deinit();
 
     try transition1_command_buffer.beginCommandBuffer();
     transition1_command_buffer.pipelineBarrier(.{
@@ -206,7 +209,7 @@ pub fn load(
     });
     try transition1_command_buffer.endCommandBuffer();
 
-    try transition1_command_buffer.submit(engine, .{
+    try transition1_command_buffer.submit(.{
         .wait_semaphores = &.{.{ .semaphore = semaphore_transfer_transition }},
         .signal_semaphores = &.{semaphore_transition_compute},
     });
@@ -324,7 +327,7 @@ pub fn load(
             .base_pipeline_handle = .null_handle,
             .base_pipeline_index = -1,
         },
-    }, &engine.vk_allocator.interface, @ptrCast(&compute_pipeline));
+    }, ctx.vk_allocator.capture(), @ptrCast(&compute_pipeline));
     defer engine.destroyPipeline(compute_pipeline);
 
     const compute_descriptor_pool = try engine.createDescriptorPool(.{
@@ -390,8 +393,8 @@ pub fn load(
 
     // 1. Run compute shader
 
-    var compute_command_buffer = try CommandBuffer.init(engine, .compute);
-    defer compute_command_buffer.deinit(engine);
+    var compute_command_buffer = try CommandBuffer.init(.compute);
+    defer compute_command_buffer.deinit();
 
     try compute_command_buffer.beginCommandBuffer();
     compute_command_buffer.pipelineBarrier(.{
@@ -421,7 +424,7 @@ pub fn load(
     compute_command_buffer.proxy.dispatch(@divExact(cube_size, 8), @divExact(cube_size, 8), 6);
     try compute_command_buffer.endCommandBuffer();
 
-    try compute_command_buffer.submit(engine, .{
+    try compute_command_buffer.submit(.{
         .wait_semaphores = &.{
             .{
                 .semaphore = semaphore_transition_compute,
@@ -433,8 +436,8 @@ pub fn load(
 
     // 2. Transition cubemap
 
-    var transition2_command_buffer = try CommandBuffer.init(engine, .graphics);
-    defer transition2_command_buffer.deinit(engine);
+    var transition2_command_buffer = try CommandBuffer.init(.graphics);
+    defer transition2_command_buffer.deinit();
 
     try transition2_command_buffer.beginCommandBuffer();
     transition2_command_buffer.pipelineBarrier(.{
@@ -461,7 +464,7 @@ pub fn load(
     });
     try transition2_command_buffer.endCommandBuffer();
 
-    try transition2_command_buffer.submit(engine, .{
+    try transition2_command_buffer.submit(.{
         .wait_semaphores = &.{.{ .semaphore = semaphore_compute_transition }},
         .fence = fence,
     });
@@ -472,12 +475,12 @@ pub fn load(
 
     // --- SKYBOX PIPELINE -----------------------------------------------------
 
-    var vertex_buffer = try GenericBuffer(void, vm.Vector3).init(engine, .{
+    var vertex_buffer = try GenericBuffer(void, vm.Vector3).init(.{
         .usage = .vertex,
         .target_queue = .graphics,
         .array_capacity = 8,
     });
-    errdefer vertex_buffer.deinit(engine);
+    errdefer vertex_buffer.deinit();
 
     //   6━━━━7
     //  ╱│   ╱┃
@@ -487,7 +490,7 @@ pub fn load(
     // ┃╱   ┃╱    │╱
     // 0━━━━1     O────X
 
-    try vertex_buffer.write(engine, .{
+    try vertex_buffer.write(.{
         .elements = &.{
             .init(-1, -1, -1),
             .init(1, -1, -1),
@@ -500,14 +503,14 @@ pub fn load(
         },
     });
 
-    var index_buffer = try GenericBuffer(void, u16).init(engine, .{
+    var index_buffer = try GenericBuffer(void, u16).init(.{
         .usage = .index,
         .target_queue = .graphics,
         .array_capacity = 36,
     });
-    errdefer index_buffer.deinit(engine);
+    errdefer index_buffer.deinit();
 
-    try index_buffer.write(engine, .{
+    try index_buffer.write(.{
         .elements = &.{
             // Positive X
             3, 1, 7,
@@ -735,8 +738,10 @@ pub fn load(
             .dynamic_states = &.{ .viewport, .scissor },
         },
         .layout = pipeline_layout,
-        .render_pass = render_pass,
-        .subpass = 0,
+        .view_mask = 0,
+        .color_attachment_formats = &.{swapchain.params.surface_format.format},
+        .depth_attachment_format = Texture.Usage.depth.vkFormat(),
+        .stencil_attachment_format = .undefined,
     });
 
     return .{
@@ -756,15 +761,17 @@ pub fn load(
     };
 }
 
-pub fn deinit(self: *Skybox, engine: *Engine) void {
+pub fn deinit(self: *Skybox) void {
+    const engine = ctx.engine;
+
     engine.destroyPipeline(self.pipeline);
     engine.destroyPipelineLayout(self.pipeline_layout);
     engine.destroyDescriptorPool(self.descriptor_pool);
     engine.destroyDescriptorSetLayout(self.descriptor_set_layout);
 
     engine.destroySampler(self.sampler);
-    self.index_buffer.deinit(engine);
-    self.vertex_buffer.deinit(engine);
+    self.index_buffer.deinit();
+    self.vertex_buffer.deinit();
 
     engine.destroyImageView(self.image_view);
     engine.freeMemory(self.device_memory);

src/engine/StagingBuffer.zig

@@ -1,6 +1,7 @@
 const StagingBuffer = @This();
 const std = @import("std");
 
+const ctx = @import("../AppContext.zig");
 const vk = @import("vulkan");
 
 const Engine = @import("Engine.zig");
@@ -15,7 +16,9 @@ pub const InitInfo = struct {
     capacity: u32,
 };
 
-pub fn init(engine: *Engine, init_info: InitInfo) !StagingBuffer {
+pub fn init(init_info: InitInfo) !StagingBuffer {
+    const engine = ctx.engine;
+
     const target_queue_family = switch (init_info.target_queue) {
         .graphics => engine.graphics_queue.allocation.family,
         .compute => engine.compute_queue.allocation.family,
@@ -50,8 +53,10 @@ pub fn init(engine: *Engine, init_info: InitInfo) !StagingBuffer {
     };
 }
 
-pub fn deinit(self: *StagingBuffer, engine: *Engine) void {
-    std.log.scoped(.deinit).debug("Deinitializing {*} with {*}", .{ self, engine });
+pub fn deinit(self: *StagingBuffer) void {
+    const engine = ctx.engine;
+
+    std.log.scoped(.deinit).debug("Deinitializing {*}", .{self});
 
     engine.freeMemory(self.device_memory);
     engine.destroyBuffer(self.buffer);
@@ -59,16 +64,20 @@ pub fn deinit(self: *StagingBuffer, engine: *Engine) void {
     self.* = undefined;
 }
 
-pub fn map(self: StagingBuffer, engine: *Engine) ![]u8 {
-    const mapped_memory = try self.mapPartial(engine, 0, self.capacity);
+pub fn map(self: StagingBuffer) ![]u8 {
+    const mapped_memory = try self.mapPartial(0, self.capacity);
     return mapped_memory;
 }
 
-pub fn mapPartial(self: StagingBuffer, engine: *Engine, offset: u32, len: u32) ![]u8 {
+pub fn mapPartial(self: StagingBuffer, offset: u32, len: u32) ![]u8 {
+    const engine = ctx.engine;
+
     const mapped_memory = try engine.mapMemory(self.device_memory, offset, len, .{});
     return mapped_memory;
 }
 
-pub fn unmap(self: StagingBuffer, engine: *Engine) void {
+pub fn unmap(self: StagingBuffer) void {
+    const engine = ctx.engine;
+
     engine.unmapMemory(self.device_memory);
 }

src/engine/Swapchain.zig

@@ -1,19 +1,19 @@
 const Swapchain = @This();
 const std = @import("std");
 
+const ctx = @import("../AppContext.zig");
 const vk = @import("vulkan");
 
 const CommandBuffer = @import("CommandBuffer.zig");
 const Engine = @import("Engine.zig");
-const QSM = @import("QueueSharingMode.zig");
 const Texture = @import("Texture.zig");
 const WaitSemaphore = @import("WaitSemaphore.zig");
 
 params: Params,
-render_pass: vk.RenderPass,
 
 extent: vk.Extent2D = .{ .width = 0, .height = 0 },
 swapchain: vk.SwapchainKHR = .null_handle,
+/// Allocated with `allocator_general`.
 swapchain_images: []SwapchainImage = &.{},
 depth_texture: ?Texture = null,
 image_index: ?u32 = null,
@@ -25,144 +25,54 @@ pub const PresentResult = enum {
     suboptimal,
 };
 
-pub fn init(engine: *Engine) !Swapchain {
-    const params: Params = try .init(engine);
+pub fn init() !*Swapchain {
+    const allocator_persistent = ctx.allocator_persistent;
 
-    const render_pass = try engine.createRenderPass(.{
-        .attachments = &.{
-            .{
-                .format = params.surface_format.format,
-                .samples = .{ .@"1_bit" = true },
-                .load_op = .clear,
-                .store_op = .store,
-                .stencil_load_op = .dont_care,
-                .stencil_store_op = .dont_care,
-                .initial_layout = .undefined,
-                .final_layout = .present_src_khr,
-            },
-            .{
-                .format = Texture.Usage.depth.vkFormat(),
-                .samples = .{ .@"1_bit" = true },
-                .load_op = .clear,
-                .store_op = .dont_care,
-                .stencil_load_op = .clear,
-                .stencil_store_op = .dont_care,
-                .initial_layout = .undefined,
-                .final_layout = .depth_stencil_attachment_optimal,
-            },
-        },
-        .subpasses = &.{
-            // Main
-            .{
-                .pipeline_bind_point = .graphics,
-                .color_attachments = &.{
-                    .{
-                        .attachment = 0,
-                        .layout = .color_attachment_optimal,
-                    },
-                },
-                .depth_stencil_attachment = .{
-                    .attachment = 1,
-                    .layout = .depth_stencil_attachment_optimal,
-                },
-            },
-            // GUI
-            .{
-                .pipeline_bind_point = .graphics,
-                .color_attachments = &.{
-                    .{
-                        .attachment = 0,
-                        .layout = .color_attachment_optimal,
-                    },
-                },
-            },
-        },
-        .dependencies = &.{
-            .{
-                .src_subpass = 0,
-                .dst_subpass = 0,
-                .src_stage_mask = .{
-                    .color_attachment_output_bit = true,
-                    .late_fragment_tests_bit = true,
-                },
-                .dst_stage_mask = .{
-                    .color_attachment_output_bit = true,
-                    .early_fragment_tests_bit = true,
-                },
-                .src_access_mask = .{
-                    .depth_stencil_attachment_write_bit = true,
-                },
-                .dst_access_mask = .{
-                    .color_attachment_write_bit = true,
-                    .depth_stencil_attachment_write_bit = true,
-                },
-                .dependency_flags = .{
-                    .by_region_bit = true,
-                },
-            },
-            .{
-                .src_subpass = 0,
-                .dst_subpass = 1,
-                .src_stage_mask = .{
-                    .color_attachment_output_bit = true,
-                },
-                .dst_stage_mask = .{
-                    .color_attachment_output_bit = true,
-                },
-                .src_access_mask = .{
-                    .color_attachment_write_bit = true,
-                },
-                .dst_access_mask = .{
-                    .color_attachment_write_bit = true,
-                },
-                .dependency_flags = .{
-                    .by_region_bit = true,
-                },
-            },
-        },
-    });
-    errdefer engine.destroyRenderPass(render_pass);
-    engine.setObjectName(render_pass, "RP", .{});
+    const swapchain = try allocator_persistent.create(Swapchain);
+    errdefer allocator_persistent.destroy(swapchain);
 
-    var swapchain: Swapchain = .{
-        .params = params,
-        .render_pass = render_pass,
+    swapchain.* = .{
+        .params = try .init(),
     };
 
-    try recreate(&swapchain, engine);
+    try swapchain.recreate();
     return swapchain;
 }
 
-pub fn deinit(self: *Swapchain, engine: *Engine) void {
-    std.log.scoped(.deinit).debug("Deinitializing {*} with {*}", .{ self, engine });
+pub fn deinit(self: *Swapchain) void {
+    const allocator_general = ctx.allocator_general;
+    const engine = ctx.engine;
 
-    const allocator = engine.vk_allocator.allocator;
+    std.log.scoped(.deinit).debug("Deinitializing {*}", .{self});
 
     for (self.swapchain_images) |*swapchain_image| {
-        swapchain_image.deinit(engine);
+        swapchain_image.deinit();
     }
-    allocator.free(self.swapchain_images);
+    allocator_general.free(self.swapchain_images);
 
     if (self.depth_texture) |*depth_texture| {
-        depth_texture.deinit(engine);
+        depth_texture.deinit();
     }
 
     if (self.swapchain != .null_handle) {
         engine.destroySwapchain(self.swapchain);
     }
 
-    engine.destroyRenderPass(self.render_pass);
     engine.destroySemaphore(self.semaphore_image_acquired);
     engine.destroyFence(self.fence);
 
     self.* = undefined;
 }
 
-pub fn recreate(self: *Swapchain, engine: *Engine) !void {
-    try engine.deviceWaitIdle(); // TODO LMAO
+pub fn recreate(self: *Swapchain) !void {
+    const allocator_general = ctx.allocator_general;
+    const allocator_frame = ctx.allocator_frame;
+    const engine = ctx.engine;
 
-    const mode = &engine.mode.surface;
-    const allocator = engine.vk_allocator.allocator;
+    // TODO This is very "LMAO just wait for all" way to synchronize. It might
+    // be the only viable option, though. Either way, we should research what
+    // is "the way".
+    try engine.deviceWaitIdle();
 
     const old_swapchain = self.swapchain;
     const old_swapchain_images = self.swapchain_images;
@@ -170,7 +80,7 @@ pub fn recreate(self: *Swapchain, engine: *Engine) !void {
     const old_semaphore_image_acquired = self.semaphore_image_acquired;
     const old_fence = self.fence;
 
-    const extent = try getCurrentExtent(engine);
+    const extent = try getCurrentExtent();
 
     std.log.debug("Recreating swapchain with extent of {d}×{d}...", .{ extent.width, extent.height });
 
@@ -178,7 +88,7 @@ pub fn recreate(self: *Swapchain, engine: *Engine) !void {
 
     const surface_capabilities = try engine.getPhysicalDeviceSurfaceCapabilities();
     const new_swapchain = try engine.createSwapchain(.{
-        .surface = mode.surface,
+        .surface = engine.surface,
         .min_image_count = self.params.image_count,
         .image_format = self.params.surface_format.format,
         .image_color_space = self.params.surface_format.color_space,
@@ -187,7 +97,7 @@ pub fn recreate(self: *Swapchain, engine: *Engine) !void {
         .image_usage = .{ .color_attachment_bit = true },
         .queue_family_indices = &.{
             engine.graphics_queue.allocation.family,
-            mode.presentation_queue.allocation.family,
+            engine.presentation_queue.allocation.family,
         },
         .pre_transform = surface_capabilities.current_transform,
         .composite_alpha = .{ .opaque_bit_khr = true },
@@ -205,13 +115,13 @@ pub fn recreate(self: *Swapchain, engine: *Engine) !void {
     // null and deinit the old swapchain and images.
 
     for (old_swapchain_images) |*swapchain_image| {
-        swapchain_image.deinit(engine);
+        swapchain_image.deinit();
     }
-    allocator.free(self.swapchain_images);
+    allocator_general.free(self.swapchain_images);
     self.swapchain_images = &.{};
 
     if (old_depth_texture.*) |*depth_texture| {
-        depth_texture.deinit(engine);
+        depth_texture.deinit();
     }
 
     if (old_swapchain != .null_handle) {
@@ -234,44 +144,42 @@ pub fn recreate(self: *Swapchain, engine: *Engine) !void {
 
     // --- CREATE DEPTH TEXTURE ------------------------------------------------
 
-    var new_depth_texture = try Texture.init(engine, .{
+    var new_depth_texture = try Texture.init(.{
         .width = extent.width,
         .height = extent.height,
         .target_queue = .graphics,
         .usage = .depth,
         .name = "@Depth",
     });
-    errdefer new_depth_texture.deinit(engine);
+    errdefer new_depth_texture.deinit();
 
     // --- CREATE NEW SWAPCHAIN IMAGES -----------------------------------------
 
     const new_swapchain_images = blk: {
-        const images = try engine.getSwapchainImagesAlloc(new_swapchain, allocator);
-        defer allocator.free(images);
+        const images = try engine.getSwapchainImagesAlloc(new_swapchain, allocator_frame);
 
-        var swapchain_images: std.ArrayList(SwapchainImage) = try .initCapacity(allocator, images.len);
-        errdefer swapchain_images.deinit(allocator);
+        var swapchain_images: std.ArrayList(SwapchainImage) = try .initCapacity(allocator_general, images.len);
+        errdefer swapchain_images.deinit(allocator_general);
 
-        errdefer for (swapchain_images.items) |*x| x.deinit(engine);
+        errdefer for (swapchain_images.items) |*x| x.deinit();
 
         for (images, 0..) |image, index| {
-            swapchain_images.appendAssumeCapacity(try SwapchainImage.init(engine, .{
+            swapchain_images.appendAssumeCapacity(try SwapchainImage.init(.{
                 .image = image,
                 .format = self.params.surface_format.format,
-                .render_pass = self.render_pass,
                 .extent = extent,
                 .depth_stencil_image_view = new_depth_texture.image_view,
                 .index = index,
             }));
         }
 
-        break :blk try swapchain_images.toOwnedSlice(allocator);
+        break :blk try swapchain_images.toOwnedSlice(allocator_general);
     };
     errdefer {
         for (new_swapchain_images) |*swapchain_image| {
-            swapchain_image.deinit(engine);
+            swapchain_image.deinit();
         }
-        allocator.free(new_swapchain_images);
+        allocator_general.free(new_swapchain_images);
     }
 
     // --- CREATE SEMAPHORES AND FENCES ----------------------------------------
@@ -297,7 +205,9 @@ pub fn recreate(self: *Swapchain, engine: *Engine) !void {
     self.fence = fence;
 }
 
-pub fn acquire(self: *Swapchain, engine: *Engine) !void {
+pub fn acquire(self: *Swapchain) !void {
+    const engine = ctx.engine;
+
     try engine.waitForFence(self.fence);
     try engine.resetFence(self.fence);
 
@@ -308,19 +218,24 @@ pub fn acquire(self: *Swapchain, engine: *Engine) !void {
     self.image_index = res.image_index;
 }
 
+pub fn getCurrentSwapchainImage(self: *Swapchain) *const SwapchainImage {
+    return &self.swapchain_images[self.image_index.?];
+}
+
 pub const PresentInfo = struct {
     command_buffer: CommandBuffer,
     wait_semaphores: []const WaitSemaphore = &.{},
 };
 
-pub fn present(self: *Swapchain, engine: *Engine, present_info: PresentInfo) !void {
-    const allocator = engine.vk_allocator.allocator;
-    const current_swapchain_image = &self.swapchain_images[self.image_index.?];
+pub fn present(self: *Swapchain, present_info: PresentInfo) !void {
+    const allocator_frame = ctx.allocator_frame;
+    const engine = ctx.engine;
+
+    const current_swapchain_image = self.getCurrentSwapchainImage();
 
     // --- SUBMIT COMMAND BUFFER -----------------------------------------------
 
-    var wait_semaphores: std.ArrayList(WaitSemaphore) = try .initCapacity(allocator, 1 + present_info.wait_semaphores.len);
-    defer wait_semaphores.deinit(allocator);
+    var wait_semaphores: std.ArrayList(WaitSemaphore) = try .initCapacity(allocator_frame, 1 + present_info.wait_semaphores.len);
 
     wait_semaphores.appendAssumeCapacity(.{
         .semaphore = current_swapchain_image.semaphore_image_acquired,
@@ -328,7 +243,7 @@ pub fn present(self: *Swapchain, engine: *Engine, present_info: PresentInfo) !vo
     });
     wait_semaphores.appendSliceAssumeCapacity(present_info.wait_semaphores);
 
-    try present_info.command_buffer.submit(engine, .{
+    try present_info.command_buffer.submit(.{
         .wait_semaphores = wait_semaphores.items,
         .signal_semaphores = &.{current_swapchain_image.semaphore_render_finished},
         .fence = self.fence,
@@ -343,15 +258,17 @@ pub fn present(self: *Swapchain, engine: *Engine, present_info: PresentInfo) !vo
     });
 }
 
-fn getCurrentExtent(engine: *Engine) !vk.Extent2D {
-    const mode = &engine.mode.surface;
+fn getCurrentExtent() !vk.Extent2D {
+    const window = ctx.window;
+    const engine = ctx.engine;
+
     const surface_capabilities = try engine.getPhysicalDeviceSurfaceCapabilities();
 
     if (surface_capabilities.current_extent.width != std.math.maxInt(u32) and surface_capabilities.current_extent.height != std.math.maxInt(u32)) {
         return surface_capabilities.current_extent;
     }
 
-    const framebuffer_width, const framebuffer_height = mode.window.getFramebufferSize();
+    const framebuffer_width, const framebuffer_height = window.getFramebufferSize();
 
     return .{
         .width = std.math.clamp(
@@ -371,14 +288,14 @@ const Params = struct {
     surface_format: vk.SurfaceFormatKHR,
     image_count: u32,
 
-    pub fn init(engine: *Engine) !Params {
-        const allocator = engine.vk_allocator.allocator;
+    pub fn init() !Params {
+        const allocator_frame = ctx.allocator_frame;
+        const engine = ctx.engine;
 
         const surface_capabilities = try engine.getPhysicalDeviceSurfaceCapabilities();
 
         const surface_format = blk: {
-            const surface_formats = try engine.getPhysicalDeviceSurfaceFormatsAlloc(allocator);
-            defer allocator.free(surface_formats);
+            const surface_formats = try engine.getPhysicalDeviceSurfaceFormatsAlloc(allocator_frame);
 
             // Look for 8-bit BGRA sRGB surface format.
 
@@ -414,19 +331,19 @@ const SwapchainImage = struct {
     image_view: vk.ImageView,
     semaphore_image_acquired: vk.Semaphore,
     semaphore_render_finished: vk.Semaphore,
-    framebuffer: vk.Framebuffer,
 
     const InitProps = struct {
         image: vk.Image,
         format: vk.Format,
-        render_pass: vk.RenderPass,
         extent: vk.Extent2D,
         depth_stencil_image_view: vk.ImageView,
 
         index: usize,
     };
 
-    fn init(engine: *Engine, props: InitProps) !SwapchainImage {
+    fn init(props: InitProps) !SwapchainImage {
+        const engine = ctx.engine;
+
         const image_view = try engine.createImageView(.{
             .image = props.image,
             .view_type = .@"2d",
@@ -450,29 +367,19 @@ const SwapchainImage = struct {
         errdefer engine.destroySemaphore(semaphore_render_finished);
         engine.setObjectName(image_view, "S Rendered[{d}]", .{props.index});
 
-        const framebuffer = try engine.createFramebuffer(.{
-            .render_pass = props.render_pass,
-            .attachments = &.{ image_view, props.depth_stencil_image_view },
-            .width = props.extent.width,
-            .height = props.extent.height,
-            .layers = 1,
-        });
-        errdefer engine.destroyFramebuffer(framebuffer);
-        engine.setObjectName(image_view, "FB Swapchain[{d}]", .{props.index});
-
         return .{
             .image = props.image,
             .image_view = image_view,
             .semaphore_image_acquired = semaphore_image_acquired,
             .semaphore_render_finished = semaphore_render_finished,
-            .framebuffer = framebuffer,
         };
     }
 
-    fn deinit(self: *SwapchainImage, engine: *Engine) void {
-        std.log.scoped(.deinit).debug("Deinitializing {*} with {*}", .{ self, engine });
+    fn deinit(self: *SwapchainImage) void {
+        const engine = ctx.engine;
+
+        std.log.scoped(.deinit).debug("Deinitializing {*}", .{self});
 
-        engine.destroyFramebuffer(self.framebuffer);
         engine.destroySemaphore(self.semaphore_render_finished);
         engine.destroySemaphore(self.semaphore_image_acquired);
         engine.destroyImageView(self.image_view);

src/engine/Texture.zig

@@ -1,9 +1,11 @@
 const Texture = @This();
 const std = @import("std");
 
+const ctx = @import("../AppContext.zig");
 const vk = @import("vulkan");
 
 const CommandBuffer = @import("CommandBuffer.zig");
+const DeviceAllocation = @import("DeviceAllocation.zig");
 const Engine = @import("Engine.zig");
 const StagingBuffer = @import("StagingBuffer.zig");
 const TargetQueue = @import("TargetQueue.zig").TargetQueue;
@@ -67,11 +69,14 @@ pub const InitInfo = struct {
     height: u32,
     usage: Usage,
     target_queue: TargetQueue,
+    device_allocation: ?*DeviceAllocation = null,
     name: ?[]const u8 = null,
 };
 
 image: vk.Image,
 image_view: vk.ImageView,
+/// Is `.null_handle` when external device memory is provided via
+/// `device_allocation` in init info.
 device_memory: vk.DeviceMemory,
 target_queue: TargetQueue,
 
@@ -79,18 +84,15 @@ width: u32,
 height: u32,
 usage: Usage,
 
-pub fn init(engine: *Engine, init_info: InitInfo) !Texture {
+pub fn init(init_info: InitInfo) !Texture {
+    const engine = ctx.engine;
+
     const target_queue_family = switch (init_info.target_queue) {
         .graphics => engine.graphics_queue.allocation.family,
         .compute => engine.compute_queue.allocation.family,
     };
     const transfer_queue_family = engine.transfer_queue.allocation.family;
 
-    const queue_family_indices: []const u32 = if (init_info.usage == .depth)
-        &.{target_queue_family}
-    else
-        &.{ target_queue_family, transfer_queue_family };
-
     const image = try engine.createImage(.{
         .image_type = .@"2d",
         .format = init_info.usage.vkFormat(),
@@ -108,7 +110,7 @@ pub fn init(engine: *Engine, init_info: InitInfo) !Texture {
             .transfer_dst_bit = init_info.usage != .depth,
             .sampled_bit = init_info.usage != .depth,
         },
-        .queue_family_indices = queue_family_indices,
+        .queue_family_indices = &.{ target_queue_family, transfer_queue_family },
         .initial_layout = .undefined,
     });
     errdefer engine.destroyImage(image);
@@ -116,14 +118,20 @@ pub fn init(engine: *Engine, init_info: InitInfo) !Texture {
         engine.setObjectName(image, "I {s} [{s}]", .{ name, @tagName(init_info.usage) });
     }
 
-    const memory_requirements = engine.getImageMemoryRequirements(image);
-    const device_memory = try engine.allocate(memory_requirements, .{ .device_local_bit = true });
+    var device_memory: vk.DeviceMemory = .null_handle;
     errdefer engine.freeMemory(device_memory);
+
+    if (init_info.device_allocation) |device_allocation| {
+        try device_allocation.bindImage(image);
+    } else {
+        const memory_requirements = engine.getImageMemoryRequirements(image);
+        device_memory = try engine.allocate(memory_requirements, .{ .device_local_bit = true });
         if (init_info.name) |name| {
             engine.setObjectName(device_memory, "DM {s} [{s}]", .{ name, @tagName(init_info.usage) });
         }
 
         try engine.bindImageMemory(image, device_memory, 0);
+    }
 
     const image_view = try engine.createImageView(.{
         .image = image,
@@ -156,8 +164,10 @@ pub fn init(engine: *Engine, init_info: InitInfo) !Texture {
     };
 }
 
-pub fn deinit(self: *Texture, engine: *Engine) void {
-    std.log.scoped(.deinit).debug("Deinitializing {*} with {*}", .{ self, engine });
+pub fn deinit(self: *Texture) void {
+    const engine = ctx.engine;
+
+    std.log.scoped(.deinit).debug("Deinitializing {*}", .{self});
 
     engine.destroyImageView(self.image_view);
     engine.freeMemory(self.device_memory);
@@ -166,7 +176,9 @@ pub fn deinit(self: *Texture, engine: *Engine) void {
     self.* = undefined;
 }
 
-pub fn writeTexels(self: Texture, comptime TexelType: type, engine: *Engine, texels: []const TexelType) !void {
+pub fn writeTexels(self: Texture, comptime TexelType: type, texels: []const TexelType) !void {
+    const engine = ctx.engine;
+
     const texel_count = try std.math.mul(u32, self.width, self.height);
     std.debug.assert(texels.len == texel_count);
     switch (self.usage) {
@@ -176,7 +188,7 @@ pub fn writeTexels(self: Texture, comptime TexelType: type, engine: *Engine, tex
     try self.writeRaw(engine, std.mem.sliceAsBytes(texels));
 }
 
-pub fn writeSamples(self: Texture, comptime SampleType: type, engine: *Engine, samples: []const SampleType) !void {
+pub fn writeSamples(self: Texture, comptime SampleType: type, samples: []const SampleType) !void {
     const texel_count = try std.math.mul(u32, self.width, self.height);
     const sample_count = try std.math.mul(u32, texel_count, self.usage.samplesPerTexel());
     std.debug.assert(samples.len == sample_count);
@@ -184,29 +196,31 @@ pub fn writeSamples(self: Texture, comptime SampleType: type, engine: *Engine, s
         inline else => |x| std.debug.assert(SampleType == x.SampleType()),
     }
 
-    try self.writeRaw(engine, std.mem.sliceAsBytes(samples));
+    try self.writeRaw(std.mem.sliceAsBytes(samples));
 }
 
-pub fn writeRaw(self: Texture, engine: *Engine, data: []const u8) !void {
+pub fn writeRaw(self: Texture, data: []const u8) !void {
+    const engine = ctx.engine;
+
     const texel_count = try std.math.mul(u32, self.width, self.height);
     const byte_length = try std.math.mul(u32, texel_count, self.usage.bytesPerTexel());
     std.debug.assert(data.len == byte_length);
     std.debug.assert(self.usage != .depth);
 
-    var staging_buffer = try StagingBuffer.init(engine, .{
+    var staging_buffer = try StagingBuffer.init(.{
         .capacity = @intCast(byte_length),
         .target_queue = self.target_queue,
     });
-    defer staging_buffer.deinit(engine);
+    defer staging_buffer.deinit();
 
-    const staging_memory = try staging_buffer.map(engine);
+    const staging_memory = try staging_buffer.map();
     @memcpy(staging_memory, data);
-    staging_buffer.unmap(engine);
+    staging_buffer.unmap();
 
     // --- TRANSITION TO TRANSFER_DST_OPTIMAL AND COPY -----------------
 
-    var transfer_command_buffer: CommandBuffer = try .init(engine, .transfer);
-    defer transfer_command_buffer.deinit(engine);
+    var transfer_command_buffer: CommandBuffer = try .init(.transfer);
+    defer transfer_command_buffer.deinit();
 
     try transfer_command_buffer.beginCommandBuffer();
 
@@ -259,14 +273,14 @@ pub fn writeRaw(self: Texture, engine: *Engine, data: []const u8) !void {
     const semaphore = try engine.createSemaphore();
     defer engine.destroySemaphore(semaphore);
 
-    try transfer_command_buffer.submit(engine, .{
+    try transfer_command_buffer.submit(.{
         .signal_semaphores = &.{semaphore},
     });
 
     // --- TRANSITION TO SHADER_READ_ONLY_OPTIMAL ----------------------
 
-    var graphics_command_buffer: CommandBuffer = try .init(engine, .graphics);
-    defer graphics_command_buffer.deinit(engine);
+    var graphics_command_buffer: CommandBuffer = try .init(.graphics);
+    defer graphics_command_buffer.deinit();
 
     try graphics_command_buffer.beginCommandBuffer();
 
@@ -298,7 +312,7 @@ pub fn writeRaw(self: Texture, engine: *Engine, data: []const u8) !void {
     const fence = try engine.createFence(.{});
     defer engine.destroyFence(fence);
 
-    try graphics_command_buffer.submit(engine, .{
+    try graphics_command_buffer.submit(.{
         .wait_semaphores = &.{.{ .semaphore = semaphore }},
         .fence = fence,
     });

src/engine/Textures.zig

@@ -3,11 +3,14 @@
 const Textures = @This();
 const std = @import("std");
 
+const ctx = @import("../AppContext.zig");
 const media = @import("media");
+const vk = @import("vulkan");
 
-const Atom = @import("../engine/Atom.zig").Atom;
-const Engine = @import("../engine/Engine.zig");
-const Texture = @import("../engine/Texture.zig");
+const Atom = @import("Atom.zig").Atom;
+const DeviceAllocation = @import("DeviceAllocation.zig");
+const Engine = @import("Engine.zig");
+const Texture = @import("Texture.zig");
 
 pub const Id = enum(u16) {
     // VOLATILE Synchronize explicit values with `init` implementation.
@@ -56,85 +59,123 @@ pub const Key = struct {
     usage: Texture.Usage,
 };
 
-/// Maps a key value to a texture ID.
+/// Maps a key value to a texture ID. Preallocated with `allocator_persistent`.
 map: std.AutoHashMapUnmanaged(Key, Id),
 /// Stores all `Texture` structs and maps a texture ID to a `Texture` struct.
+/// Preallocated with `allocator_persistent`.
 array: std.ArrayList(Texture),
+device_allocation: DeviceAllocation,
 
-/// 4096 textures of usage `.base_color` and 16×16 dimensions should take 4 MiB
-/// in VRAM.
 pub const max_textures = 4096;
+/// Enough for 4096 textures of usage `.base_color` and 64×64 dimensions.
+pub const max_memory = 64 * 1024 * 1024;
 
-pub fn init(engine: *Engine, allocator: std.mem.Allocator) !Textures {
-    var map: std.AutoHashMapUnmanaged(Key, Id) = .empty;
-    errdefer map.deinit(allocator);
-    try map.ensureTotalCapacity(allocator, max_textures);
+pub fn init() !*Textures {
+    const allocator_persistent = ctx.allocator_persistent;
+    const engine = ctx.engine;
+
+    const textures = try allocator_persistent.create(Textures);
+
+    textures.* = .{
+        .map = .empty,
+        .array = .empty,
+        .device_allocation = .empty,
+    };
 
-    var array: std.ArrayList(Texture) = try .initCapacity(allocator, max_textures);
     errdefer {
-        for (array.items) |*texture| {
-            texture.deinit(engine);
+        for (textures.array.items) |*texture| {
+            texture.deinit();
         }
-        array.deinit(allocator);
+        textures.device_allocation.deinit();
     }
 
+    try textures.map.ensureTotalCapacity(allocator_persistent, max_textures);
+    try textures.array.ensureTotalCapacityPrecise(allocator_persistent, max_textures);
+    textures.device_allocation = try engine.allocateForImage(
+        .{
+            .image_type = .@"2d",
+            .format = .r8g8b8a8_unorm,
+            .extent = .{
+                .width = 1,
+                .height = 1,
+                .depth = 1,
+            },
+            .mip_levels = 1,
+            .array_layers = 1,
+            .samples = .{ .@"1_bit" = true },
+            .tiling = .optimal,
+            .usage = .{
+                .transfer_dst_bit = true,
+                .sampled_bit = true,
+            },
+            .queue_family_indices = &.{
+                engine.graphics_queue.allocation.family,
+                engine.transfer_queue.allocation.family,
+            },
+            .initial_layout = .undefined,
+        },
+        .{ .color_bit = true },
+        max_memory,
+        .{ .device_local_bit = true },
+    );
+
     // VOLATILE Synchronize with explicit values on top of `Id` type.
 
-    const empty_base_color_texture = try Texture.init(engine, .{
+    const empty_base_color_texture = try Texture.init(.{
         .width = 1,
         .height = 1,
         .usage = .base_color,
         .target_queue = .graphics,
+        .device_allocation = &textures.device_allocation,
         .name = "@Empty",
     });
-    array.appendAssumeCapacity(empty_base_color_texture);
+    textures.array.appendAssumeCapacity(empty_base_color_texture);
 
-    const empty_emissive_texture = try Texture.init(engine, .{
+    const empty_emissive_texture = try Texture.init(.{
         .width = 1,
         .height = 1,
         .usage = .emissive,
         .target_queue = .graphics,
+        .device_allocation = &textures.device_allocation,
         .name = "@Empty",
     });
-    array.appendAssumeCapacity(empty_emissive_texture);
+    textures.array.appendAssumeCapacity(empty_emissive_texture);
 
-    const empty_normal_texture = try Texture.init(engine, .{
+    const empty_normal_texture = try Texture.init(.{
         .width = 1,
         .height = 1,
         .usage = .normal,
         .target_queue = .graphics,
+        .device_allocation = &textures.device_allocation,
         .name = "@Empty",
     });
-    array.appendAssumeCapacity(empty_normal_texture);
+    textures.array.appendAssumeCapacity(empty_normal_texture);
 
-    const empty_occlusuion_roughness_metallic_texture = try Texture.init(engine, .{
+    const empty_occlusuion_roughness_metallic_texture = try Texture.init(.{
         .width = 1,
         .height = 1,
         .usage = .occlusion_roughness_metallic,
         .target_queue = .graphics,
+        .device_allocation = &textures.device_allocation,
         .name = "@Empty",
     });
-    array.appendAssumeCapacity(empty_occlusuion_roughness_metallic_texture);
+    textures.array.appendAssumeCapacity(empty_occlusuion_roughness_metallic_texture);
 
-    try empty_base_color_texture.writeSamples(u8, engine, &.{ 255, 255, 255, 255 });
-    try empty_emissive_texture.writeSamples(f16, engine, &.{ 1.0, 1.0, 1.0, 1.0 });
-    try empty_normal_texture.writeSamples(i8, engine, &.{ 0, 0, 127, 127 });
-    try empty_occlusuion_roughness_metallic_texture.writeSamples(u8, engine, &.{ 255, 255, 255, 255 });
+    try empty_base_color_texture.writeSamples(u8, &.{ 255, 255, 255, 255 });
+    try empty_emissive_texture.writeSamples(f16, &.{ 1.0, 1.0, 1.0, 1.0 });
+    try empty_normal_texture.writeSamples(i8, &.{ 0, 0, 127, 127 });
+    try empty_occlusuion_roughness_metallic_texture.writeSamples(u8, &.{ 255, 255, 255, 255 });
 
-    return .{
-        .map = map,
-        .array = array,
-    };
+    return textures;
 }
 
-pub fn deinit(self: *Textures, engine: *Engine, allocator: std.mem.Allocator) void {
-    std.log.scoped(.deinit).debug("Deinitializing {*} with {*} and Allocator{{{*},{*}}}", .{ self, engine, allocator.ptr, allocator.vtable });
+pub fn deinit(self: *Textures) void {
+    std.log.scoped(.deinit).debug("Deinitializing {*}", .{self});
 
     for (self.array.items) |*texture| {
-        texture.deinit(engine);
+        texture.deinit();
     }
-    self.array.deinit(allocator);
-    self.map.deinit(allocator);
+    self.device_allocation.deinit();
     self.* = undefined;
 }
 
@@ -172,19 +213,12 @@ pub fn getAtom(self: *const Textures, filename: Atom, usage: Texture.Usage) ?Id
 /// if necessary. Will not return any error if the texture already exists. When
 /// the filename is `null`, returns an empty texture ID appropriate for given
 /// usage.
-pub fn getOrLoad(
-    self: *Textures,
-    engine: *Engine,
-    stbi: *media.stbi,
-    maybe_filename: ?[]const u8,
-    usage: Texture.Usage,
-    io: std.Io,
-) !Id {
+pub fn getOrLoad(self: *Textures, maybe_filename: ?[]const u8, usage: Texture.Usage) !Id {
     if (maybe_filename) |filename| {
         const key: Key = .{
             // If the texture already exists, then the atom must exist and the
             // following line will not return any error.
-            .filename = try .fromString(filename, io),
+            .filename = try .fromString(filename),
             .usage = usage,
         };
 
@@ -197,7 +231,7 @@ pub fn getOrLoad(
             const id = Id.fromIndexSafe(self.array.items.len) catch |err| switch (err) {
                 error.Overflow => return error.OutOfTextures,
             };
-            const texture = try loadTexture(engine, stbi, filename, usage, io);
+            const texture = try loadTexture(filename, usage, &self.device_allocation);
 
             self.map.putAssumeCapacityNoClobber(key, id);
             self.array.appendAssumeCapacity(texture);
@@ -214,22 +248,16 @@ pub fn getOrLoad(
 /// if necessary. Will not return any error if the texture already exists. When
 /// the filename is `.empty`, returns an empty texture ID appropriate for given
 /// usage.
-pub fn getOrLoadAtom(
-    self: *Textures,
-    engine: *Engine,
-    stbi: *media.stbi,
-    filename: Atom,
-    usage: Texture.Usage,
-    io: std.Io,
-) !Id {
+pub fn getOrLoadAtom(self: *Textures, filename: Atom, usage: Texture.Usage) !Id {
     if (filename != .empty) {
         const key: Key = .{
             .filename = filename,
             .usage = usage,
         };
 
-        // We don't use `getOrPutAssumeCapacity` method, because we might already be
-        // at full capacity, in which case we should return `error.OutOfTextures`.
+        // We don't use `getOrPutAssumeCapacity` method, because we might
+        // already be at full capacity, in which case we should return
+        // `error.OutOfTextures`.
 
         if (self.map.get(key)) |id| {
             return id;
@@ -237,7 +265,7 @@ pub fn getOrLoadAtom(
             const id = Id.fromIndexSafe(self.array.items.len) catch |err| switch (err) {
                 error.Overflow => return error.OutOfTextures,
             };
-            const texture = try loadTexture(engine, stbi, filename.toString(), usage, io);
+            const texture = try loadTexture(filename.toString(), usage, &self.device_allocation);
 
             self.map.putAssumeCapacityNoClobber(key, id);
             self.array.appendAssumeCapacity(texture);
@@ -250,12 +278,13 @@ pub fn getOrLoadAtom(
 }
 
 fn loadTexture(
-    engine: *Engine,
-    stbi: *media.stbi,
     filename: []const u8,
     usage: Texture.Usage,
-    io: std.Io,
+    device_allocation: *DeviceAllocation,
 ) !Texture {
+    const io = ctx.io;
+    const stbi = ctx.stbi;
+
     std.log.debug("Loading texture \"{s}\" as {s}...", .{ filename, @tagName(usage) });
 
     const cwd = std.Io.Dir.cwd();
@@ -285,16 +314,17 @@ fn loadTexture(
         }
     }
 
-    var texture = try Texture.init(engine, .{
+    var texture = try Texture.init(.{
         .width = img.width,
         .height = img.height,
         .usage = usage,
         .target_queue = .graphics,
+        .device_allocation = device_allocation,
         .name = filename,
     });
-    errdefer texture.deinit(engine);
+    errdefer texture.deinit();
 
-    try texture.writeRaw(engine, @ptrCast(data));
+    try texture.writeRaw(@ptrCast(data));
     return texture;
 }
 

src/engine/VkAllocator.zig

@@ -1,13 +1,43 @@
 const VkAllocator = @This();
 const std = @import("std");
 
+const ctx = @import("../AppContext.zig");
 const vk = @import("vulkan");
 
-allocator: std.mem.Allocator,
-allocations: std.AutoHashMapUnmanaged(*anyopaque, usize) = .empty,
-mutex: std.Io.Mutex = .init,
-allocated_bytes: usize = 0,
-io: std.Io,
+const Allocation = struct {
+    len: usize,
+    stack_trace: [stack_frames]usize,
+
+    fn capture(len: usize) Allocation {
+        return .{
+            .len = len,
+            .stack_trace = stack_trace_buf,
+        };
+    }
+
+    fn dumpStackTrace(self: *Allocation) void {
+        const st = self.getStackTrace();
+        std.debug.dumpStackTrace(&st);
+    }
+
+    fn getStackTrace(self: *Allocation) std.debug.StackTrace {
+        var stack_trace_len: usize = 0;
+        while (stack_trace_len < self.stack_trace.len and self.stack_trace[stack_trace_len] != 0) {
+            stack_trace_len += 1;
+        }
+        return .{
+            .return_addresses = self.stack_trace[0..stack_trace_len],
+            .skipped = if (stack_trace_len < self.stack_trace.len) .none else .unknown,
+        };
+    }
+};
+
+threadlocal var stack_trace_buf: [stack_frames]usize = undefined;
+
+/// Uses `allocator_general`.
+allocations: std.AutoHashMapUnmanaged(*anyopaque, Allocation),
+mutex: std.Io.Mutex,
+allocated_bytes: usize,
 
 interface: vk.AllocationCallbacks,
 
@@ -16,48 +46,66 @@ interface: vk.AllocationCallbacks,
 // around it, but it would add much complexity. Instead, we allocate everything
 // with the same, relatively big alignment and hope for the best.
 const actual_alignment: std.mem.Alignment = .@"16";
+const debug = @import("builtin").mode == .Debug;
+const stack_frames: usize = if (debug and std.debug.sys_can_stack_trace) 6 else 0;
 
 const log = std.log.scoped(.vk_allocator);
 
-pub fn init(allocator: std.mem.Allocator, io: std.Io) !*VkAllocator {
-    // NOTE We allocate the structure to pin its address.
-    const self = try allocator.create(VkAllocator);
+pub fn init() !*VkAllocator {
+    const allocator_persistent = ctx.allocator_persistent;
 
-    self.* = .{
-        .allocator = allocator,
+    // NOTE We allocate the structure to pin its address.
+    const vk_allocator = try allocator_persistent.create(VkAllocator);
+    errdefer allocator_persistent.destroy(vk_allocator);
+
+    vk_allocator.* = .{
+        .allocations = .empty,
+        .mutex = .init,
+        .allocated_bytes = 0,
         .interface = .{
-            .p_user_data = self,
+            .p_user_data = vk_allocator,
             .pfn_allocation = &allocationFunction,
             .pfn_reallocation = &reallocationFunction,
             .pfn_free = &freeFunction,
         },
-        .io = io,
     };
-    return self;
+    return vk_allocator;
 }
 
 pub fn deinit(self: *VkAllocator) void {
+    const allocator_general = ctx.allocator_general;
+
     std.log.scoped(.deinit).debug("Deinitializing {*}", .{self});
+
     if (self.allocated_bytes > 0) {
         log.warn("{d} byte(s) still allocated while deinitializing", .{self.allocated_bytes});
     }
+
     if (self.allocations.size > 0) {
         log.warn("{d} allocation(s) still tracked while deinitializing", .{self.allocations.size});
         var it = self.allocations.iterator();
         var index: usize = 0;
         while (it.next()) |entry| : (index += 1) {
-            log.warn("Leaked allocation ({d}/{d}) at 0x{x} of {d} byte(s)", .{ index + 1, self.allocations.size, @intFromPtr(entry.key_ptr.*), entry.value_ptr.* });
-            const memory = @as([*]align(actual_alignment.toByteUnits()) u8, @ptrCast(@alignCast(entry.key_ptr.*)))[0..entry.value_ptr.*];
-            self.allocator.free(memory);
+            const ptr = entry.key_ptr.*;
+            const allocation = entry.value_ptr;
+
+            log.warn("Leaked allocation ({d}/{d}) at 0x{x} of {d} byte(s)", .{ index + 1, self.allocations.size, @intFromPtr(ptr), allocation.len });
+            allocation.dumpStackTrace();
+
+            const memory = @as([*]align(actual_alignment.toByteUnits()) u8, @ptrCast(@alignCast(ptr)))[0..allocation.len];
+            allocator_general.free(memory);
         }
     }
 
-    const allocator = self.allocator;
-
-    self.allocations.deinit(allocator);
-
+    self.allocations.deinit(allocator_general);
     self.* = undefined;
-    allocator.destroy(self);
+}
+
+pub noinline fn capture(self: *const VkAllocator) *const vk.AllocationCallbacks {
+    const ret_addr = @returnAddress();
+    const stack_trace = std.debug.captureCurrentStackTrace(.{ .first_address = ret_addr }, &stack_trace_buf);
+    @memset(stack_trace_buf[@min(stack_trace.return_addresses.len, stack_trace_buf.len)..], 0);
+    return &self.interface;
 }
 
 fn allocationFunction(
@@ -66,18 +114,21 @@ fn allocationFunction(
     alignment: usize,
     _: vk.SystemAllocationScope,
 ) callconv(vk.vulkan_call_conv) ?*anyopaque {
+    const allocator_general = ctx.allocator_general;
+    const io = ctx.io;
+
     const self: *VkAllocator = @ptrCast(@alignCast(p_user_data.?));
 
     const desired_alignment = std.mem.Alignment.fromByteUnits(alignment);
     std.debug.assert(std.mem.Alignment.compare(actual_alignment, .gte, desired_alignment));
 
-    self.mutex.lock(self.io) catch return null;
-    defer self.mutex.unlock(self.io);
+    self.mutex.lockUncancelable(io);
+    defer self.mutex.unlock(io);
 
-    self.allocations.ensureUnusedCapacity(self.allocator, 1) catch return null;
-    const memory = self.allocator.alignedAlloc(u8, actual_alignment, size) catch return null;
+    self.allocations.ensureUnusedCapacity(allocator_general, 1) catch return null;
+    const memory = allocator_general.alignedAlloc(u8, actual_alignment, size) catch return null;
 
-    self.allocations.putAssumeCapacity(memory.ptr, size);
+    self.allocations.putAssumeCapacity(memory.ptr, .capture(size));
     self.allocated_bytes += size;
     //log.debug("Allocated {d} bytes(s) at 0x{x}", .{ size, @intFromPtr(memory.ptr) });
 
@@ -91,34 +142,37 @@ fn reallocationFunction(
     alignment: usize,
     _: vk.SystemAllocationScope,
 ) callconv(vk.vulkan_call_conv) ?*anyopaque {
+    const allocator_general = ctx.allocator_general;
+    const io = ctx.io;
+
     const self: *VkAllocator = @ptrCast(@alignCast(p_user_data.?));
 
     const desired_alignment = std.mem.Alignment.fromByteUnits(alignment);
     std.debug.assert(std.mem.Alignment.compare(actual_alignment, .gte, desired_alignment));
 
-    self.mutex.lock(self.io) catch return null;
-    defer self.mutex.unlock(self.io);
+    self.mutex.lockUncancelable(io);
+    defer self.mutex.unlock(io);
 
     // NOTE If we were pedantic, we would consider the fact that we might not
     // need unused capacity if the memory doesn't get relocated.
-    self.allocations.ensureUnusedCapacity(self.allocator, 1) catch return null;
+    self.allocations.ensureUnusedCapacity(allocator_general, 1) catch return null;
 
     const old_memory = if (maybe_p_original) |p_original| blk_then: {
-        const old_size = self.allocations.get(p_original).?;
+        const old_size = self.allocations.get(p_original).?.len;
         break :blk_then @as([*]align(actual_alignment.toByteUnits()) u8, @ptrCast(@alignCast(p_original)))[0..old_size];
     } else blk_else: {
         break :blk_else @as([]align(actual_alignment.toByteUnits()) u8, &.{});
     };
 
-    const memory = self.allocator.realloc(old_memory, size) catch return null;
+    const memory = allocator_general.realloc(old_memory, size) catch return null;
     std.debug.assert(std.mem.isAligned(@intFromPtr(memory.ptr), alignment));
 
     if (maybe_p_original) |p_original| {
-        const old_size = self.allocations.fetchRemove(p_original).?.value;
+        const old_size = self.allocations.fetchRemove(p_original).?.value.len;
         self.allocated_bytes -= old_size;
     }
 
-    self.allocations.putAssumeCapacityNoClobber(memory.ptr, size);
+    self.allocations.putAssumeCapacityNoClobber(memory.ptr, .capture(size));
     self.allocated_bytes += size;
     //log.debug("Reallocated into {d} bytes(s) at 0x{x} from 0x{x}", .{ size, @intFromPtr(memory.ptr), @intFromPtr(maybe_p_original) });
 
@@ -129,16 +183,19 @@ fn freeFunction(
     p_user_data: ?*anyopaque,
     maybe_p_memory: ?*anyopaque,
 ) callconv(vk.vulkan_call_conv) void {
+    const allocator_general = ctx.allocator_general;
+    const io = ctx.io;
+
     const self: *VkAllocator = @ptrCast(@alignCast(p_user_data.?));
 
     if (maybe_p_memory) |p_memory| {
-        self.mutex.lockUncancelable(self.io);
-        defer self.mutex.unlock(self.io);
+        self.mutex.lockUncancelable(io);
+        defer self.mutex.unlock(io);
 
-        const size = self.allocations.fetchRemove(p_memory).?.value;
+        const size = self.allocations.fetchRemove(p_memory).?.value.len;
         self.allocated_bytes -= size;
         const memory = @as([*]align(actual_alignment.toByteUnits()) u8, @ptrCast(@alignCast(p_memory)))[0..size];
 
-        self.allocator.free(memory);
+        allocator_general.free(memory);
     }
 }

src/main.zig

@@ -1,11 +1,12 @@
 const std = @import("std");
 
+const c = @import("const.zig");
+const ctx = @import("AppContext.zig");
 const glfw = @import("zglfw");
+const media = @import("media");
 const vk = @import("vulkan");
 
-const c = @import("const.zig");
-
-const atoms = @import("engine/Atom.zig");
+const Atoms = @import("engine/Atoms.zig");
 const Engine = @import("engine/Engine.zig");
 const Swapchain = @import("engine/Swapchain.zig");
 const Game = @import("Game.zig");
@@ -25,11 +26,23 @@ pub const std_options: std.Options = .{
 };
 
 pub fn main(init: std.process.Init) !void {
-    const allocator = init.gpa;
-    const io = init.io;
+    var arena_frame: std.heap.ArenaAllocator = .init(std.heap.page_allocator);
+    defer arena_frame.deinit();
 
-    try atoms.init(allocator, io);
-    defer atoms.deinit(io);
+    ctx.allocator_general = init.gpa;
+    ctx.allocator_frame = arena_frame.allocator();
+    ctx.allocator_persistent = init.arena.allocator();
+    ctx.io = init.io;
+    ctx.vk_allocator = try .init();
+    defer {
+        ctx.vk_allocator.deinit();
+        ctx.vk_allocator = undefined;
+    }
+    ctx.stbi = try ctx.allocator_persistent.create(media.stbi);
+    ctx.stbi.* = .init(ctx.allocator_general, ctx.io);
+    defer ctx.stbi.deinit();
+
+    // --- INITIALIZE APP CONTEXT ---
 
     glfw.init() catch |err| {
         std.log.err("Could not initialize GLFW", .{});
@@ -43,59 +56,98 @@ pub fn main(init: std.process.Init) !void {
     }
 
     glfw.windowHint(.client_api, .no_api);
-    var window = glfw.Window.create(c.default_window_width, c.default_window_height, c.window_title, null, null) catch |err| {
+    ctx.window = glfw.Window.create(c.default_window_width, c.default_window_height, c.window_title, null, null) catch |err| {
         std.log.err("Could not create window", .{});
         return err;
     };
-    defer window.destroy();
-
-    window.setSizeLimits(c.min_window_width, c.min_window_height, -1, -1);
-    window.setInputMode(.cursor, .disabled) catch {};
-    if (glfw.rawMouseMotionSupported()) {
-        window.setInputMode(.raw_mouse_motion, true) catch {};
+    defer {
+        ctx.window.destroy();
+        ctx.window = undefined;
     }
 
-    _ = window.setKeyCallback(keyCallback);
-    _ = window.setCursorPosCallback(cursorPosCallback);
-    _ = window.setMouseButtonCallback(mouseButtonCallback);
+    ctx.window.setSizeLimits(c.min_window_width, c.min_window_height, -1, -1);
+    ctx.window.setInputMode(.cursor, .disabled) catch {};
+    if (glfw.rawMouseMotionSupported()) {
+        ctx.window.setInputMode(.raw_mouse_motion, true) catch {};
+    }
 
-    var engine = try Engine.init(allocator, io, window);
-    defer engine.deinit();
+    _ = ctx.window.setKeyCallback(keyCallback);
+    _ = ctx.window.setCursorPosCallback(cursorPosCallback);
+    _ = ctx.window.setMouseButtonCallback(mouseButtonCallback);
 
-    var swapchain = try Swapchain.init(&engine);
-    defer swapchain.deinit(&engine);
+    ctx.atoms = try .init();
+    defer {
+        ctx.atoms.deinit();
+        ctx.atoms = undefined;
+    }
 
-    var game = try Game.init(allocator, io, &engine, &swapchain);
+    ctx.engine = try .init();
+    defer {
+        ctx.engine.deinit();
+        ctx.engine = undefined;
+    }
+
+    ctx.swapchain = try .init();
+    defer {
+        ctx.swapchain.deinit();
+        ctx.swapchain = undefined;
+    }
+
+    ctx.textures = try .init();
+    defer {
+        ctx.textures.deinit();
+        ctx.textures = undefined;
+    }
+
+    ctx.materials = try .init();
+    defer {
+        ctx.materials.deinit();
+        ctx.materials = undefined;
+    }
+
+    ctx.gui = try .init();
+    defer {
+        ctx.gui.deinit();
+        ctx.gui = undefined;
+    }
+
+    // --- INITIALIZE THE GAME ---
+
+    var game = try Game.init();
     var callback_context: CallbackContext = blk: {
-        const cursor_last_xpos, const cursor_last_ypos = window.getCursorPos();
+        const cursor_last_xpos, const cursor_last_ypos = ctx.window.getCursorPos();
         break :blk .{
             .game = &game,
             .cursor_last_xpos = cursor_last_xpos,
             .cursor_last_ypos = cursor_last_ypos,
-            .focused = (window.getInputMode(.cursor) catch .normal) == .disabled,
+            .focused = (ctx.window.getInputMode(.cursor) catch .normal) == .disabled,
         };
     };
-    window.setUserPointer(&callback_context);
+    ctx.window.setUserPointer(&callback_context);
     defer {
-        window.setUserPointer(null);
+        ctx.window.setUserPointer(null);
         game.deinit();
     }
 
+    _ = arena_frame.reset(.retain_capacity);
+
     var t1 = glfw.getTime();
-    while (!window.shouldClose()) {
+    while (!ctx.window.shouldClose()) {
         glfw.pollEvents();
 
         const t2 = glfw.getTime();
         const dt: f32 = @floatCast(t2 - t1);
         t1 = t2;
 
+        ctx.gui.beginFrame();
         game.update(dt);
+        _ = arena_frame.reset(.retain_capacity);
     }
 
     std.log.debug("Exitted the game loop", .{});
 
-    engine.waitForFence(swapchain.fence) catch {};
-    engine.deviceWaitIdle() catch {};
+    ctx.engine.waitForFence(ctx.swapchain.fence) catch {};
+    ctx.engine.deviceWaitIdle() catch {};
 }
 
 const CallbackContext = struct {
@@ -106,24 +158,24 @@ const CallbackContext = struct {
 };
 
 fn keyCallback(window: *glfw.Window, key_code: glfw.Key, _: c_int, action: glfw.Action, _: glfw.Mods) callconv(.c) void {
-    const maybe_ctx = window.getUserPointer(CallbackContext);
+    const maybe_callback_ctx = window.getUserPointer(CallbackContext);
 
     if (key_code == .escape and action == .press and (window.getInputMode(.cursor) catch .normal) == .disabled) {
         window.setInputMode(.cursor, .normal) catch {};
-        if (maybe_ctx) |ctx| {
+        if (maybe_callback_ctx) |callback_ctx| {
             const cursor_last_xpos, const cursor_last_ypos = window.getCursorPos();
-            ctx.cursor_last_xpos = cursor_last_xpos;
-            ctx.cursor_last_ypos = cursor_last_ypos;
-            ctx.focused = false;
+            callback_ctx.cursor_last_xpos = cursor_last_xpos;
+            callback_ctx.cursor_last_ypos = cursor_last_ypos;
+            callback_ctx.focused = false;
         }
         return;
     }
 
-    if (maybe_ctx) |ctx| {
-        if (ctx.focused) {
+    if (maybe_callback_ctx) |callback_ctx| {
+        if (callback_ctx.focused) {
             switch (action) {
-                .press => ctx.game.onKeyDown(key_code),
-                .release => ctx.game.onKeyUp(key_code),
+                .press => callback_ctx.game.onKeyDown(key_code),
+                .release => callback_ctx.game.onKeyUp(key_code),
                 .repeat => {},
             }
         }
@@ -131,36 +183,36 @@ fn keyCallback(window: *glfw.Window, key_code: glfw.Key, _: c_int, action: glfw.
 }
 
 fn cursorPosCallback(window: *glfw.Window, cursor_xpos: f64, cursor_ypos: f64) callconv(.c) void {
-    const maybe_ctx = window.getUserPointer(CallbackContext);
-    if (maybe_ctx) |ctx| {
-        if (ctx.focused) {
-            const dx: f32 = @floatCast(cursor_xpos - ctx.cursor_last_xpos);
-            const dy: f32 = @floatCast(cursor_ypos - ctx.cursor_last_ypos);
-            ctx.game.onMouseMove(dx, dy);
-            ctx.cursor_last_xpos = cursor_xpos;
-            ctx.cursor_last_ypos = cursor_ypos;
+    const maybe_callback_ctx = window.getUserPointer(CallbackContext);
+    if (maybe_callback_ctx) |callback_ctx| {
+        if (callback_ctx.focused) {
+            const dx: f32 = @floatCast(cursor_xpos - callback_ctx.cursor_last_xpos);
+            const dy: f32 = @floatCast(cursor_ypos - callback_ctx.cursor_last_ypos);
+            callback_ctx.game.onMouseMove(dx, dy);
+            callback_ctx.cursor_last_xpos = cursor_xpos;
+            callback_ctx.cursor_last_ypos = cursor_ypos;
         }
     }
 }
 
 fn mouseButtonCallback(window: *glfw.Window, button: glfw.MouseButton, action: glfw.Action, _: glfw.Mods) callconv(.c) void {
-    const maybe_ctx = window.getUserPointer(CallbackContext);
+    const maybe_callback_ctx = window.getUserPointer(CallbackContext);
 
     if (button == .left and action == .press and (window.getInputMode(.cursor) catch .normal) == .normal) {
         window.setInputMode(.cursor, .disabled) catch {};
-        if (maybe_ctx) |ctx| {
+        if (maybe_callback_ctx) |callback_ctx| {
             const cursor_last_xpos, const cursor_last_ypos = window.getCursorPos();
-            ctx.cursor_last_xpos = cursor_last_xpos;
-            ctx.cursor_last_ypos = cursor_last_ypos;
-            ctx.focused = true;
+            callback_ctx.cursor_last_xpos = cursor_last_xpos;
+            callback_ctx.cursor_last_ypos = cursor_last_ypos;
+            callback_ctx.focused = true;
         }
     }
 
-    if (maybe_ctx) |ctx| {
-        if (ctx.focused) {
+    if (maybe_callback_ctx) |callback_ctx| {
+        if (callback_ctx.focused) {
             switch (action) {
-                .press => ctx.game.onMouseDown(button),
-                .release => ctx.game.onMouseUp(button),
+                .press => callback_ctx.game.onMouseDown(button),
+                .release => callback_ctx.game.onMouseUp(button),
                 .repeat => {},
             }
         }

src/shaders.zig

@@ -1,9 +1,9 @@
 const std = @import("std");
 const vm = @import("vecmath");
 
-const Materials = @import("assets/Materials.zig");
+const Materials = @import("engine/Materials.zig");
 const GenericBuffer = @import("engine/GenericBuffer.zig").GenericBuffer;
-const Textures = @import("assets/Textures.zig");
+const Textures = @import("engine/Textures.zig");
 
 pub const VertexBuffer = GenericBuffer(void, Vertex);
 pub const IndexBuffer = GenericBuffer(void, Index);

src/voxels.zig

@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ const std = @import("std");
 const c = @import("const.zig");
 const vm = @import("vecmath");
 
-const Materials = @import("assets/Materials.zig");
+const Materials = @import("engine/Materials.zig");
 
 pub const Orientation = enum(u3) {
     negative_x = 0b111,